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通讯作者:

袁庆新,E-mail:yqx@njmu.edu.cn

中图分类号:R581.2

文献标识码:A

文章编号:1007-4368(2022)10-1415-07

DOI:10.7655/NYDXBNS20221010

参考文献 1
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参考文献 2
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参考文献 7
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参考文献 8
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参考文献 9
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参考文献 10
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参考文献 11
《妊娠和产后甲状腺疾病诊治指南》(第2版)编撰委员会,中华医学会内分泌学分会,中华医学会围产医学分会.妊娠和产后甲状腺疾病诊治指南(第2版)[J].中华围产医学杂志,2019,22(8):505-506
参考文献 12
LUO J Y,LI C Y,ZHANG X M,et al.Reference intervals of the ratio of urine iodine to creatinine in pregnant wom⁃ en in an iodine⁃replete area of China[J].Biol Trace Elem Res,2021,199(1):62-69
参考文献 13
JI C L,BU Y,TIAN C Y,et al.Determination of reference intervals of ratios of concentrations of urinary iodine to creatinine and thyroid hormone concentrations in preg⁃ nant women consuming adequate iodine in Harbin,Hei⁃ longjiang Province[J].Biol Trace Elem Res,2020,193(1):36-43
参考文献 14
ALEXANDER E K,PEARCE E N,BRENT G A,et al.2017 guidelines of the American thyroid association for the diagnosis and management of thyroid disease during pregnancy and the postpartum[J].Thyroid,2017,27(3):315-389
参考文献 15
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参考文献 16
XIAO Y,SUN H K,LI C Y,et al.Effect of iodine nutri⁃ tion on pregnancy outcomes in an iodine ⁃ sufficient area in China[J].Biol Trace Elem Res,2018,182(2):231-237
参考文献 17
ALVES M L D,GABARRA M H C,NAVARRO A M.Comparison of iodine concentrations in kitchen salt and urine with the thyroid volume of schoolchildren from Ri⁃ beirão Preto,São Paulo,Brazil:warning of worsening after 10 years of study[J].Thyroid,2018,28(12):1694-1701
参考文献 18
CASTILLA A M,MURCIA M,ARRIZABALAGA J J,et al.Comparison of urinary iodine levels in women of child⁃ bearing age during and after pregnancy[J].Eur J Nutr,2018,57(5):1807-1816
参考文献 19
KNUDSEN N,CHRISTIANSEN E,BRANDT ⁃ CHRIS⁃ TENSEN M,et al.Age⁃and sex⁃adjusted iodine/creatinine ratio.a new standard in epidemiological surveys?Evalua⁃ tion of three different estimates of iodine excretion based on casual urine samples and comparison to 24 h values [J].Eur J Clin Nutr,2000,54(4):361-363
参考文献 20
MONTENEGRO⁃BETHANCOURT G,JOHNER S A,ST⁃ EHLE P,et al.Iodine status assessment in children:spot urine iodine concentration reasonably reflects true twenty⁃ four⁃hour iodine excretion only when scaled to creatinine [J].Thyroid,2015,25(6):688-697
参考文献 21
WANG K L,ZHANG J,LI F G,et al.Urinary iodine in early pregnancy is associated with subclinical hypothy⁃ roidism in Tianjin,China:an observational study[J].BMC Endocr Disord,2017,17(1):10
参考文献 22
满娜,关海霞,单忠艳,等.慢性碘过量对大鼠甲状腺功能及甲状腺过氧化物酶活性和钠碘同向转运体表达的影响[J].中华医学杂志,2006,86(48):3420-3424
参考文献 23
左爱军,梁东春,刘颖,等.不同碘营养水平对大鼠肝脏组织中Ⅰ型 5′脱碘酶的影响[J].中国地方病学杂志,2007,26(3):245-248
参考文献 24
陈威,滕晓春,单忠艳,等.慢性碘过量对大鼠甲状腺细胞凋亡的影响[J].中华内分泌代谢杂志,2008,24(6):649-653
目录contents

    摘要

    目的:观察南京地区妊娠中后期妇女尿碘浓度(urine iodine concentration,UIC)、尿肌酐(urinary creatnine,UCr)的变化,拟定尿碘/尿肌酐(urinary iodine concentration/ urinary creatinine ratio,UIC/UCr)参考范围,探讨UIC/UCr与不同程度甲状腺激素减低的关系,及以UIC/UCr评估妊娠期妇女碘营养状态的可行性。方法:选取2018—2020年在南京医科大学第一附属医院就诊建卡的妊娠20~28周孕妇301例,检测促甲状腺素(thyriod stimulating hormone,TSH)、游离三碘甲状腺素(free triiodothy- roxine,FT3)、游离甲状腺素(free thyroxine,FT4)、抗甲状腺球蛋白抗体(anti-thyroglobulin antibody,TgAb)、抗甲状腺过氧化物酶抗体(anti-thyroid peroxidase antibody,TPOAb)、抗甲状腺素受体抗体(anti-thyroxine receptor antibody,TRAb)。留取晨尿测UIC、 UCr,在 137 例甲功及抗体正常孕妇中确定 UIC/UCr 正常参考范围,并分析不同程度甲状腺功能减退孕妇的碘营养状况。 结果:①正常妊娠中后期妇女UIC/UCr参考范围在106.14~269.75 μg/g;②以UIC/UCr评估入组的孕妇,碘缺乏占22.59%,碘充足占48.17%,碘过量占29.24%;③FT4随着UIC/UCr的升高而降低,当UIC/UCr超足量时,TSH明显升高;④亚临床甲状腺功能减退症和单纯性低T4血症人群的碘超足量比例高于碘缺乏比例。结论:以UIC/UCr替代UIC评价孕期碘营养状态,碘缺乏比例明显降低,UIC/UCr与TSH、FT4相关;亚临床甲状腺功能减退症和单纯性低T4血症孕妇,应结合UIC/UCr值慎重补碘。

    Abstract

    Objective:This study aims to investigate the variations of urinary iodine concentration(UIC)and urinary creatinine (UCr)in the second and third trimester of pregnancy in Nanjing establish the reference range of UIC/UCr,in order to explore the relationship between UIC/UCr and different degrees of hypothyroidism,and study the feasibility of using UIC/UCr to assess the iodine nutritional status in pregnant women. Methods:A total of 301 pregnant women at 20~28 weeks of gestation in the First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University from 2018 to 2020 were recruited,and their thyroid stimulating hormone(TSH),free triiodothyroxine(FT3),free thyroxine(FT4),anti-thyroglobulin antibody(TgAb),anti-thyroperoxidase antibody(TPOAb),and anti- thyroxine receptor antibody(TRAb)were detected. UIC and UCr were measured in morning urine. The normal reference range for UIC/ UCr was determined in 137 pregnant women with normal thyroid function and antibody. The iodine nutritional status of pregnant women with hypothyroidism of different degrees was analyzed. Results:①The UIC/UCr reference interval was 106.14~269.75 μg/g in middle and late pregnancy. ②According to our UIC/UCr reference interval,iodine deficiency accounted for 22.59%,iodine adequacy accounted for 48.17%,and iodine excess accounted for 29.24%. ③FT4 decreased with the increase of UIC/UCr,and TSH increased significantly when UIC/UCr exceeded the limit. ④ The proportions of iodine excess in subclinical hypothyroidism and isolated hypothyroxinemia were higher than that of iodine deficiency. Conclusion:Using UIC/UCr instead of UIC to evaluate iodine nutritional status during pregnancy,the iodine deficiency proportion is significantly reduced. UIC/UCr is correlated with TSH and FT4. Iodine should be supplemented carefully according to the UIC/UCr value in subclinical hypothyroidism and isolated hypothyroxinemia.

  • 甲状腺功能减退是妊娠期常见的合并症,越来越多的证据表明,甲状腺功能减退可能影响神经系统发育[1]、基础代谢、胎儿和儿童的发育[2-3]。碘是合成甲状腺激素的重要元素,其营养状态影响甲状腺激素合成。人体内碘主要来自饮用水和食物,碘吸收入血后被甲状腺滤泡细胞摄取,并通过肾脏排泄[4-5]。人体吸收的碘约90%会通过尿排泄,因此尿碘浓度(urine iodine concentration,UIC)被认为是个体近期碘摄取量的指标,尿碘中位数(median urine iodine,MUI)是评价人群碘状态的标准[6]

  • 因胎儿营养和母体自身代谢需要,妊娠期妇女是碘缺乏的易患人群。有研究显示,根据2007年WHO推荐值(碘营养不足:UIC< 150 μg/L;碘充足: UIC 150~249 μg/L;碘超足量:UIC 250~499 μg/L;碘过量:UIC≥500 μg/L)[7],中国近50%妊娠妇女处于轻度碘缺乏状态。但自从国家实施全民食盐加碘政策以来,碘缺乏状态得到了很大改善,甚至一些地区及人群出现碘过多状态,也增加了甲状腺疾病的发生[8]。孕期UIC的正确评估及明确其与甲状腺功能的关系,是保证胎儿健康发育的关键之一。

  • 近年来许多专家认为,按WHO标准以UIC评估孕期碘营养有一定的不准确性,因为孕期生活习惯及各种代谢的改变,导致UIC检测受到饮水、饮食、尿液稀释、尿量、肾小球滤过率等因素的影响[9]。24h UIC检测较单次检测更准确,但因标本收集困难,影响常规检测。血碘因为检测方法问题也不能常规开展。因而孕期UIC评估方法需要进一步优化。

  • 有研究表明,孕期尿碘/尿肌酐(urinary iodine concentration/urinary creatinine ratio,UIC/UCr)与24h尿碘及血碘相关性强,可更准确地反映碘营养状态[10]。肌酐(creatnine,Cr)在血液中产生,主要通过肾小球滤过排出且不会被肾小管重吸收,因此尿肌酐(urinary creatnine,UCr)可以用来纠正孕妇UIC检测的不准确性。我国最新指南[11]提出以UIC/UCr替代UIC评价孕期碘营养,但正常参考范围尚未确定,虽然有研究提出了孕期UIC/UCr正常区间[12-13],但由于各地区人群基础碘营养状态的不同,具体评估方法及在孕期甲状腺疾病中的应用研究较少。既往研究大多关注孕早期人群,妊娠中后期孕妇碘营养状态缺乏系统研究,且其与甲状腺功能的关系也需进一步探讨。

  • 本研究首先通过检测妊娠中后期孕妇UIC、 UCr,计算UIC/UCr,提出本地区UIC/UCr的参考区间,并基于此评估不同程度甲状腺功能减退孕妇的碘营养状况,探讨UIC/UCr与甲状腺功能的相关关系,为这一特定人群在孕中后期制定合理的碘摄入量提供依据。

  • 1 对象和方法

  • 1.1 对象

  • 收集2018年1月—2020年1月在南京医科大学第一附属医院常规产前医学检查的301例孕妇的基本信息(年龄、孕周等)。排除多胎妊娠、有甲状腺疾病史或者其他慢性病史及家族病史、孕前服用甲状腺相关药物、补碘及资料缺失孕妇。最终排除甲功异常及抗体阳性孕妇164例,共有137例孕妇作为参考人群计算正常UIC/UCr范围。所有参与者被告知本研究目的和程序,并获得书面同意。

  • 1.2 方法

  • 1.2.1 UIC和UCr检测

  • 收集尿样本,使用砷铈催化分光光度法测定尿液标本中的尿碘浓度,使用碱性苦味酸分光光度测定尿液样本中尿肌酐浓度。尿碘诊断标准以上述WHO推荐标准为准。

  • 1.2.2 甲状腺相关指标检测

  • 收集空腹静脉血,使用罗氏公司试剂盒检测促甲状腺激素(thyriod stimulating hormone,TSH)、游离三碘甲腺原氨酸(free triiodothyroxine,FT3)、游离四碘甲状腺素(free thyroxine,FT4)、甲状腺过氧化物酶(anti⁃thyroid peroxidase antibody,TPOAb)、甲状腺球蛋白抗体(anti⁃thyroglobulin antibody,TgAb)。放射免疫法检测抗甲状腺素受体抗体(anti⁃thyroxine receptor antibody,TRAb)。

  • 1.2.3 甲状腺功能评估标准

  • 参照美国甲状腺协会(ATA)2017年颁布的《妊娠和产后甲状腺疾病诊断和管理指南》提供的罗氏试剂TSH参考值范围[14] 以及我国2019年《妊娠和产后甲状腺疾病诊疗指南》[11] 中推荐的TSH、FT4参考值,本研究中妊娠期特异甲状腺功能参考值如下:妊娠早、中、晚期TSH分别为0.09~4.52、0.45~4.32、 0.30~4.98mU/L,FT4分别为13.15~20.78、9.77~18.89、9.04~15.22pmol/L,TPOAb> 34mU/L为TPOAb阳性,TgAb> 150mU/L为TgAb阳性, TRAb>1.75mU/L为TRAb阳性。

  • 1.3 统计学方法

  • 所有数据均采用SPSS 22.0进行统计学分析。使用Kolmogorov⁃Smirnov对计量资料数据进行正态性检测,UIC、UCr、TSH、FT3、FT4均不符合正态分布,采用中位数(四分位数)[MP25P75)]表示,两组间比较采用Mann⁃Whitney秩和检验,多组间比较采用Kruskal⁃Wallis H检验。计数资料采用频数(百分率)表示。UIC、UIC/UCr与甲状腺功能间的相关性采用Spearman相关性分析。P< 0.05为差异有统计学意义。

  • 2 结果

  • 2.1 妊娠中后期参考人群和甲减人群的一般情况

  • 总人群共301例,其中参考人群137例,用于确定本地区妊娠中后期UIC/UCr比值的参考范围;甲减人群130例,其中临床甲减24例,亚临床甲减85例,单纯性低T4血症21例;其余为甲亢或亚临床甲亢。甲减人群中合并TPOAb和/或TGAb阳性25例,占19.2%。UIC、UCr、UIC/UCr和甲功值见表1。

  • 表1 参考人群和甲减人群的一般情况

  • Table1 The general situation of reference population and hypothyroidism population

  • 参考人群中UIC/UCr的中位数是184.88 μg/g,第2.5百分位数(P2.5)、第25百分位数(P25)、第75百分位数(P75)和第97.5百分位数(P97.5)分别为: 38.28 μg/g、106.14 μg/g、269.75 μg/g、456.35 μg/g。 95%百分位区间为38.28~456.35 μg/g,50%百分位区间为106.14~269.75 μg/g,因为50%百分位区间更接近WHO关于碘营养的标准,而且有文献提示甲状腺功能异常患病率、抗体阳性率和甲状腺球蛋白 (thyroglobulin,Tg)> 40 μg/L的比例在50%百分位区间内最低[15],因此我们认为50%百分位区间比95%百分位区间更合理,界定本地区UIC/UCr的参考范围是106.14~269.75 μg/g,小于106.14 μg/g为碘缺乏,大于269.75 μg/g为碘超足量。

  • 2.2 妊娠中后期孕妇不同评价方法碘营养状态构成比

  • 根据WHO的UIC参考值范围,本地区妊娠中后期孕妇碘缺乏(UIC<150 μg/L)109例,占总人群的36.21%;碘充足(UIC 150~249 μg/L)79例,占26.25%;碘超足量(UIC≥250 μg/L)113例,占37.54%。按照我们UIC/UCr的参考值范围,妊娠中后期孕妇碘缺乏(UIC/UCr< 106.14 μg/g)68例,占22.59%;碘充足145例,占48.17%,碘超足量(UIC/UCr≥269.75 μg/g)88例,占29.24%。两种不同评价方法的碘营养状态构成比有显著性差异。以UIC/UCr的参考值范围评估的碘缺乏比例明显低于按WHO的UCI参考值范围的评估(χ2=13.452,P< 0.001,表2)。

  • 2.3 UIC/UCr与甲状腺功能的关系

  • 在总人群中,碘超足量(UIC/UCr≥269.75 μg/g) 人群的TSH水平比碘缺乏(UIC/UCr< 106.14 μg/g) 和碘充足(UIC/UCr 106.14~269.75 μg/g)组高。与UIC/UCr< 106.14 μg/g人群相比,UIC/UCr≥269.75 μg/g的FT4水平降低(表3)。

  • UIC/UCr与TSH、FT4有相关性,FT4随着UIC/UCr的升高而降低,但与TSH相关性较弱(P< 0.05,图1A、 B)。UIC与TSH、FT4无相关性(P> 0.05,图1C、D)。

  • 表2 妊娠中后期孕妇不同评价方法碘营养状态构成比

  • Table2 Composition ratio of iodine nutritional status by different evaluation methods in middle and late pregnancy

  • 表3 UIC/UCr与甲状腺功能的关系

  • Table3 The relationship between UIC/UCr and thyroid function

  • 与UIC/UCr< 106.14 μg/g比较,* P< 0.05;与106.14 μg/g≤UIC/UCr< 269.75 μg/g比较,# P< 0.05。

  • 图1 TSH、FT4随UIC、UIC/UCr的变化趋势

  • Fig.1 The changing trends of TSH,FT4with UIC,UIC/UCr

  • 2.4 甲减、亚甲减、低T4孕妇碘营养状态

  • 临床甲减人群中,碘缺乏(UIC/UCr<106.14 μg/g)、碘充足(UIC/UCr 106.14~269.75 μg/g)和碘超足量 (UIC/UCr≥269.75 μg/g)的分布分别为37.50%、 25.00%、37.50%;亚临床甲减人群分别为16.47%、 49.41%、34.11%;而单纯性低T4血症人群分别为4.76%、47.62%、47.62%。总体分布有显著性差异 (χ2=10.414,P=0.034)。亚临床甲减和单纯性低T4血症人群中,UIC/UCr≥269.75 μg/g者高于UIC/UCr< 106.14 μg/g者(表4)。

  • 表4 不同类型甲状腺功能减退症孕妇的碘营养状态

  • Table4 Iodine nutritional status of pregnant women with different types of hypothyroidism

  • 3 讨论

  • 孕期的碘营养状态对母婴有重要意义[16],碘缺乏或碘过量都可能影响甲状腺的形态或功能[17]。由于孕期碘需求量增加,孕妇与胎儿都易缺碘。既往研究大多关注孕早期人群,对妊娠中后期人群关注较少。但妊娠中期,胎儿甲状腺开始产生甲状腺素,导致经胎盘碘转移,进一步加剧了母婴的碘缺乏。因此,随着妊娠的进展,妊娠中后期仍有缺碘的风险。

  • 尿碘是公认的评估近期碘摄入量的指标,但随机单次尿碘不能准确反映孕妇真实的碘营养状况[18],所以专家建议以UIC/UCr来评估孕妇碘营养状态[11]。一项丹麦的研究表明,根据年龄和性别调整后,UIC/UCr在评估碘排泄方面优于其他方法,与24h尿碘排泄量有更好的相关性[19]。Montenegro⁃ Bethancourt等[20]研究也提示,用UIC/UCr来估算24h尿碘比单独使用尿碘更准确。虽然尿肌酐也会受年龄、性别、种族、尿量、蛋白营养状况等影响[10],但在妊娠妇女中,性别、年龄差异可忽略不计,UIC/UCr最大限度地减少了营养良好人群中受试者尿量和稀释度的差异引起的尿碘变化。然而目前关于UIC/UCr评价孕期碘营养的研究不多。

  • 本文的研究对象为碘充足地区的孕期妇女,排除了性别和年龄的影响,提供了本地区正常妊娠中后期妇女的UIC/UCr参考值范围在106.14~269.75 μg/g(50%区间),与近期文献报道的妊娠中期和后期UIC/UCr参考值范围[12] 非常接近,由于本研究入组人数有限,选择妊娠中后期的妇女可以作为一个统一的人群来研究。

  • 根据WHO的尿碘参考值范围,碘缺乏(UIC< 150 μg/L)的人数109例,占总人群的36.21%;按照我们的UIC/UCr参考值范围,妊娠中后期孕妇碘缺乏(< 106.14 μg/g)68例,占22.59%,碘缺乏的人数远远少于按WHO评估的人数,造成这种差别的原因可能是以UCr纠正的的参考范围区间减少了因尿液稀释等因素引起的高估的碘缺乏人数。

  • 众所周知,碘摄入不足可能引起甲状腺素合成分泌不足,从而引起甲状腺功能减退,因此目前很多地区通过食盐加碘来解决碘缺乏、预防甲减的发生。本研究在对孕期甲减人群碘营养评估中发现,不同甲减类型人群中,亚临床甲减、单纯性低T4血症孕妇碘超足量(UIC/UCr≥269.75 μg/g)的分布比例明显高于碘缺乏(UIC/UCr< 106.14 μg/g),甲减孕妇碘超足量(UIC/UCr≥269.75 μg/g)的分布比例与碘缺乏(UIC/UCr< 106.14 μg/g)相同。此结果提示,在本地区,孕妇甲状腺功能减退可能更多与碘摄入量过多相关,而不是碘缺乏。既往SHEP研究[8] 亦提示,碘超足量(UIC 250~499 μg/L)和碘过量 (UIC≥500 μg/L)分别使亚临床甲状腺功能减退风险增加1.72倍和2.17倍;同时,过量摄入碘与单纯低T4血症风险增加2.85倍相关;与碘摄入量上限相比,低碘摄入量孕妇的亚临床甲状腺功能减退症或单纯低T4血症的患病率不高。另一项中国天津的研究表明,妊娠早期孕妇UIC≥250 μg/L与亚临床甲减发病风险增加相关[21]。一项横断面研究也发现,甲减的患病率在UIC/UCr参考区间外两侧较高[15]。目前学术界对碘过量引起甲减的机制尚不明确。研究认为其机制可能为碘过量抑制过氧化物酶与甲状腺钠碘转运体蛋白的表达,从而抑制甲状腺碘摄取和有机化活性,造成甲状腺激素合成和释放功能障碍,并反馈引起TSH分泌增多[22]。碘过量还可能抑制脱碘酶活性,使T4向T3转化减少[23]。另有研究显示碘过量可能影响甲状腺形态与超微结构,促使甲状腺细胞凋亡增多等[24]。在本研究中,可能由于妊娠女性补碘意识较强,甲减孕妇的碘缺乏比例并不高,并且妊娠中后期FT4随着UIC/UCr的升高而降低,当UIC/UCr超足量时,TSH明显升高,提示在碘充足地区,碘过量较碘缺乏更应引起重视,需根据UIC/UCr的检测结果慎重补碘,使得孕妇的碘摄入量维持在合理的范围内,保证孕妇最合适、安全的碘状态。

  • 本研究也有一定的局限性:首先,样本量少,我们正在纳入更多的人群;第二,未采集患者的饮食碘营养信息。另外,本研究未采集同步血白蛋白信息,因为对于低蛋白饮食的孕妇,其低肌酐排泄可能会掩盖碘缺乏状态。

  • 综上,在碘充足地区,以UIC/UCr替代UIC评价孕期碘营养状态,碘缺乏比例明显减少,妊娠中后期FT4随着UIC/UCr的升高而降低,甲状腺功能减退人群碘营养充足或超足量比例高,应结合UIC/UCr值慎重补碘。

  • 参考文献

    • [1] AMANO I,TAKATSURU Y,KHAIRINISA M A,et al.Ef⁃ fects of mild perinatal hypothyroidism on cognitive func⁃ tion of adult male offspring[J].Endocrinology,2018,159(4):1910-1921

    • [2] MOOG N K,ENTRINGER S,HEIM C,et al.Influence of maternal thyroid hormones during gestation on fetal brain development[J].Neuroscience,2017,342:68-100

    • [3] GUTVIRTZ G,WALFISCH A,WAINSTOCK T,et al.Ma⁃ ternal hypothyroidism and future pediatric neurological morbidity of the offspring[J].Arch Gynecol Obstet,2019,299(4):975-981

    • [4] NICOLA J P,BASQUIN C,PORTULANO C,et al.The Na+/I⁃symporter mediates active iodide uptake in the in⁃ testine[J].Am J Physiol Cell Physiol,2009,296(4):C654-C662

    • [5] PORTULANO C,PARODER⁃BELENITSKY M,CARRA⁃ SCO N.The Na+/I⁃symporter(NIS):mechanism and medi⁃ cal impact[J].Endocr Rev,2014,35(1):106-149

    • [6] ZIMMERMANN M B,JOOSTE P L,PANDAV C S.Iodine⁃ deficiency disorders[J].Lancet,2008,372(9645):1251-1262

    • [7] SECRETARIAT W,ANDERSSON M,DE BENOIST B,et al.Prevention and control of iodine deficiency in pregnant and lactating women and in children less than 2 ⁃ years ⁃ old:conclusions and recommendations of the Technical Consultation[J].Public Heal Nutr,2007,10(12A):1606-1611

    • [8] SHI X G,HAN C,LI C Y,et al.Optimal and safe upper limits of iodine intake for early pregnancy in iodine⁃suffi⁃ cient regions:a cross ⁃ sectional study of 7190 pregnant women in China[J].J Clin Endocrinol Metab,2015,100(4):1630-1638

    • [9] 阎玉芹,陈祖培.尿样浓度对尿碘含量的影响[J].中国地方病学杂志,1997,16(4):239-241

    • [10] LI C Y,PENG S Q,ZHANG X M,et al.The urine iodine to creatinine as an optimal index of iodine during pregnan⁃ cy in an iodine adequate area in China[J].J Clin Endocri⁃ nol Metab,2016,101(3):1290-1298

    • [11] 《妊娠和产后甲状腺疾病诊治指南》(第2版)编撰委员会,中华医学会内分泌学分会,中华医学会围产医学分会.妊娠和产后甲状腺疾病诊治指南(第2版)[J].中华围产医学杂志,2019,22(8):505-506

    • [12] LUO J Y,LI C Y,ZHANG X M,et al.Reference intervals of the ratio of urine iodine to creatinine in pregnant wom⁃ en in an iodine⁃replete area of China[J].Biol Trace Elem Res,2021,199(1):62-69

    • [13] JI C L,BU Y,TIAN C Y,et al.Determination of reference intervals of ratios of concentrations of urinary iodine to creatinine and thyroid hormone concentrations in preg⁃ nant women consuming adequate iodine in Harbin,Hei⁃ longjiang Province[J].Biol Trace Elem Res,2020,193(1):36-43

    • [14] ALEXANDER E K,PEARCE E N,BRENT G A,et al.2017 guidelines of the American thyroid association for the diagnosis and management of thyroid disease during pregnancy and the postpartum[J].Thyroid,2017,27(3):315-389

    • [15] 王会如,侯源源,李嘉姝,等.妊娠早期妇女尿碘/尿肌酐比值参考区间的建立和应用[J].中华内分泌代谢杂志,2021,37(2):114-122

    • [16] XIAO Y,SUN H K,LI C Y,et al.Effect of iodine nutri⁃ tion on pregnancy outcomes in an iodine ⁃ sufficient area in China[J].Biol Trace Elem Res,2018,182(2):231-237

    • [17] ALVES M L D,GABARRA M H C,NAVARRO A M.Comparison of iodine concentrations in kitchen salt and urine with the thyroid volume of schoolchildren from Ri⁃ beirão Preto,São Paulo,Brazil:warning of worsening after 10 years of study[J].Thyroid,2018,28(12):1694-1701

    • [18] CASTILLA A M,MURCIA M,ARRIZABALAGA J J,et al.Comparison of urinary iodine levels in women of child⁃ bearing age during and after pregnancy[J].Eur J Nutr,2018,57(5):1807-1816

    • [19] KNUDSEN N,CHRISTIANSEN E,BRANDT ⁃ CHRIS⁃ TENSEN M,et al.Age⁃and sex⁃adjusted iodine/creatinine ratio.a new standard in epidemiological surveys?Evalua⁃ tion of three different estimates of iodine excretion based on casual urine samples and comparison to 24 h values [J].Eur J Clin Nutr,2000,54(4):361-363

    • [20] MONTENEGRO⁃BETHANCOURT G,JOHNER S A,ST⁃ EHLE P,et al.Iodine status assessment in children:spot urine iodine concentration reasonably reflects true twenty⁃ four⁃hour iodine excretion only when scaled to creatinine [J].Thyroid,2015,25(6):688-697

    • [21] WANG K L,ZHANG J,LI F G,et al.Urinary iodine in early pregnancy is associated with subclinical hypothy⁃ roidism in Tianjin,China:an observational study[J].BMC Endocr Disord,2017,17(1):10

    • [22] 满娜,关海霞,单忠艳,等.慢性碘过量对大鼠甲状腺功能及甲状腺过氧化物酶活性和钠碘同向转运体表达的影响[J].中华医学杂志,2006,86(48):3420-3424

    • [23] 左爱军,梁东春,刘颖,等.不同碘营养水平对大鼠肝脏组织中Ⅰ型 5′脱碘酶的影响[J].中国地方病学杂志,2007,26(3):245-248

    • [24] 陈威,滕晓春,单忠艳,等.慢性碘过量对大鼠甲状腺细胞凋亡的影响[J].中华内分泌代谢杂志,2008,24(6):649-653

  • 参考文献

    • [1] AMANO I,TAKATSURU Y,KHAIRINISA M A,et al.Ef⁃ fects of mild perinatal hypothyroidism on cognitive func⁃ tion of adult male offspring[J].Endocrinology,2018,159(4):1910-1921

    • [2] MOOG N K,ENTRINGER S,HEIM C,et al.Influence of maternal thyroid hormones during gestation on fetal brain development[J].Neuroscience,2017,342:68-100

    • [3] GUTVIRTZ G,WALFISCH A,WAINSTOCK T,et al.Ma⁃ ternal hypothyroidism and future pediatric neurological morbidity of the offspring[J].Arch Gynecol Obstet,2019,299(4):975-981

    • [4] NICOLA J P,BASQUIN C,PORTULANO C,et al.The Na+/I⁃symporter mediates active iodide uptake in the in⁃ testine[J].Am J Physiol Cell Physiol,2009,296(4):C654-C662

    • [5] PORTULANO C,PARODER⁃BELENITSKY M,CARRA⁃ SCO N.The Na+/I⁃symporter(NIS):mechanism and medi⁃ cal impact[J].Endocr Rev,2014,35(1):106-149

    • [6] ZIMMERMANN M B,JOOSTE P L,PANDAV C S.Iodine⁃ deficiency disorders[J].Lancet,2008,372(9645):1251-1262

    • [7] SECRETARIAT W,ANDERSSON M,DE BENOIST B,et al.Prevention and control of iodine deficiency in pregnant and lactating women and in children less than 2 ⁃ years ⁃ old:conclusions and recommendations of the Technical Consultation[J].Public Heal Nutr,2007,10(12A):1606-1611

    • [8] SHI X G,HAN C,LI C Y,et al.Optimal and safe upper limits of iodine intake for early pregnancy in iodine⁃suffi⁃ cient regions:a cross ⁃ sectional study of 7190 pregnant women in China[J].J Clin Endocrinol Metab,2015,100(4):1630-1638

    • [9] 阎玉芹,陈祖培.尿样浓度对尿碘含量的影响[J].中国地方病学杂志,1997,16(4):239-241

    • [10] LI C Y,PENG S Q,ZHANG X M,et al.The urine iodine to creatinine as an optimal index of iodine during pregnan⁃ cy in an iodine adequate area in China[J].J Clin Endocri⁃ nol Metab,2016,101(3):1290-1298

    • [11] 《妊娠和产后甲状腺疾病诊治指南》(第2版)编撰委员会,中华医学会内分泌学分会,中华医学会围产医学分会.妊娠和产后甲状腺疾病诊治指南(第2版)[J].中华围产医学杂志,2019,22(8):505-506

    • [12] LUO J Y,LI C Y,ZHANG X M,et al.Reference intervals of the ratio of urine iodine to creatinine in pregnant wom⁃ en in an iodine⁃replete area of China[J].Biol Trace Elem Res,2021,199(1):62-69

    • [13] JI C L,BU Y,TIAN C Y,et al.Determination of reference intervals of ratios of concentrations of urinary iodine to creatinine and thyroid hormone concentrations in preg⁃ nant women consuming adequate iodine in Harbin,Hei⁃ longjiang Province[J].Biol Trace Elem Res,2020,193(1):36-43

    • [14] ALEXANDER E K,PEARCE E N,BRENT G A,et al.2017 guidelines of the American thyroid association for the diagnosis and management of thyroid disease during pregnancy and the postpartum[J].Thyroid,2017,27(3):315-389

    • [15] 王会如,侯源源,李嘉姝,等.妊娠早期妇女尿碘/尿肌酐比值参考区间的建立和应用[J].中华内分泌代谢杂志,2021,37(2):114-122

    • [16] XIAO Y,SUN H K,LI C Y,et al.Effect of iodine nutri⁃ tion on pregnancy outcomes in an iodine ⁃ sufficient area in China[J].Biol Trace Elem Res,2018,182(2):231-237

    • [17] ALVES M L D,GABARRA M H C,NAVARRO A M.Comparison of iodine concentrations in kitchen salt and urine with the thyroid volume of schoolchildren from Ri⁃ beirão Preto,São Paulo,Brazil:warning of worsening after 10 years of study[J].Thyroid,2018,28(12):1694-1701

    • [18] CASTILLA A M,MURCIA M,ARRIZABALAGA J J,et al.Comparison of urinary iodine levels in women of child⁃ bearing age during and after pregnancy[J].Eur J Nutr,2018,57(5):1807-1816

    • [19] KNUDSEN N,CHRISTIANSEN E,BRANDT ⁃ CHRIS⁃ TENSEN M,et al.Age⁃and sex⁃adjusted iodine/creatinine ratio.a new standard in epidemiological surveys?Evalua⁃ tion of three different estimates of iodine excretion based on casual urine samples and comparison to 24 h values [J].Eur J Clin Nutr,2000,54(4):361-363

    • [20] MONTENEGRO⁃BETHANCOURT G,JOHNER S A,ST⁃ EHLE P,et al.Iodine status assessment in children:spot urine iodine concentration reasonably reflects true twenty⁃ four⁃hour iodine excretion only when scaled to creatinine [J].Thyroid,2015,25(6):688-697

    • [21] WANG K L,ZHANG J,LI F G,et al.Urinary iodine in early pregnancy is associated with subclinical hypothy⁃ roidism in Tianjin,China:an observational study[J].BMC Endocr Disord,2017,17(1):10

    • [22] 满娜,关海霞,单忠艳,等.慢性碘过量对大鼠甲状腺功能及甲状腺过氧化物酶活性和钠碘同向转运体表达的影响[J].中华医学杂志,2006,86(48):3420-3424

    • [23] 左爱军,梁东春,刘颖,等.不同碘营养水平对大鼠肝脏组织中Ⅰ型 5′脱碘酶的影响[J].中国地方病学杂志,2007,26(3):245-248

    • [24] 陈威,滕晓春,单忠艳,等.慢性碘过量对大鼠甲状腺细胞凋亡的影响[J].中华内分泌代谢杂志,2008,24(6):649-653