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通讯作者:

武渊,E-mail:513454087@qq.com

中图分类号:R734.2

文献标识码:A

文章编号:1007-4368(2023)04-550-05

DOI:10.7655/NYDXBNS20230415

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参考文献 2
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参考文献 4
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参考文献 12
王梦玮,徐天蔚,王朝霞.PD⁃1/PD⁃L1免疫检查点抑制剂在肺癌临床研究中的进展[J].南京医科大学学报(自然科学版),2021,41(7):1084-1094
参考文献 13
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目录contents

    摘要

    目的:探讨安罗替尼联合PD-1单抗在无驱动基因突变的老年晚期肺腺癌患者二线治疗中的疗效及对患者T淋巴细胞亚群的影响。方法:给予无驱动基因突变的老年晚期肺腺癌患者每3周1次帕博利珠单抗联合安罗替尼治疗,或每2周 1次纳武利尤单抗联合安罗替尼治疗,采用实体瘤疗效评定1.1标准进行疗效评价,直至患者出现病情进展或治疗不耐受。采用流式细胞术检测患者治疗前后外周血中T淋巴细胞亚群的变化情况,同时监测患者的不良反应。结果:本方案客观缓解率为28.1%,疾病控制率为87.5%,总体中位无进展生存时间为6.2个月。治疗2个周期后CD3+ 、CD4+ 细胞水平及CD4+ /CD8+ 明显高于治疗前,CD8+ 细胞水平明显低于治疗前(P < 0.01)。结论:安罗替尼联合PD-1单抗免疫治疗在无驱动基因突变的老年肺腺癌患者的二线治疗中,可提高近期疗效,延长无进展生存期,并且有助于患者免疫功能恢复,改善生活质量,在临床中具有良好的应用前景。

    Abstract

    Objective:To investigate the efficacy of Anlotinib combined with PD-1 inhibitor in the second-line treatment of elderly patients with advanced lung adenocarcinoma without driver gene mutation and its effect on T lymphocyte subsets. Methods:Elderly patients with advanced lung adenocarcinoma without driver gene mutation were given Pembrolizumab q3w combined with Anlotinib,or Nivolumab q2w combined with Anlotinib. The efficacy was evaluated by response evaluation criteria in solid tumors(RECIST)1.1 until the patient had disease progression or treatment intolerance. The changes of T lymphocyte subsets in peripheral blood before and after treatment were detected by flow cytometry,and the adverse reactions were monitored. Results:The objective remission rate was 28.1% and the disease control rate was 87.5%. The overall median progression free survival was 6.2 months. After two cycles of treatment,the levels of CD3+ ,CD4+ ,CD4+ /CD8+ were significantly higher than those before treatment,and the levels of CD8+ cells were significantly lower than those before treatment(P < 0.01). Conclusion:In the second -line treatment of elderly patients with lung adenocarcinoma without driver gene mutation,Anlotinib combined with PD - 1 immunotherapy can improve the short - term efficacy,prolong the progression free survival,help the recovery of immune function and improve the quality of life,which has a good prospect in clinical application.

  • 肺癌是我国发病率最高的恶性肿瘤之一,非小细胞肺癌(non⁃small cell lung cancer,NSCLC)是肺癌最常见的亚型,其中腺癌约占 54.7%[1]。由于大多数患者在诊断时已存在远处转移,丧失手术机会,整体预后不良。以程序性细胞死亡蛋白⁃1 (programmed cell death protein⁃1,PD⁃1)单克隆抗体为代表的免疫检查点抑制剂(immune checkpoint inhibitor,ICI)可显著提高治疗效果并延长患者总生存期(overall survival,OS),已成为驱动基因阴性晚期肺腺癌患者治疗的选择之一。

  • Ⅲ期临床试验 CheckMate ⁃017[2]、CheckMate ⁃ 057[3] 及 CheckMate⁃078[4] 研究结果显示,在 NSCLC 二线治疗中,纳武利尤单抗较多西他赛可延长患者 OS约3个月,纳武利尤单抗组客观缓解率(objective response rate,ORR)约为 17%~20%,但无进展生存 (progression free survival,PFS)获益不一。抗血管生成药物二线单药治疗目前尚无大样本的随机对照临床研究。单独使用PD⁃1单克隆抗体或抗血管生成药物,总体ORR和PFS欠佳[5],因此常与化疗联合使用。老年患者多合并多脏器功能不全,对化疗耐受性差,导致治疗效果欠佳。因此,适用于老年患者的治疗方案值得进一步探索。

  • 肿瘤血管异常可能是免疫治疗抵抗的机制之一[6]。目前已有许多关于 PD⁃1 单抗联合抗血管生成药物治疗NSCLC的报道。研究表明,肿瘤异常血管生成以多种方式影响实体瘤的免疫微环境中免疫细胞浸润和功能,导致免疫抑制。抗血管生成药物和PD⁃1单抗联合使用可以增加免疫细胞浸润,改善肿瘤乏氧状态,改善肿瘤免疫微环境从而导致肿瘤退缩[7]。安罗替尼是一种国产的多靶点抗血管生成药物,通过抑制血管内皮生长因子受体(vascular endothelial growth factor receptor,VEGFR)1⁃3、血小板衍生生长因子受体(platelet⁃derived growth factor receptor,PDGFR)α、PDGFRβ抑制肿瘤血管生成[8]。提示安罗替尼与PD⁃1单抗联合运用可能是未来的治疗方向。但是,其在驱动基因阴性的老年肺腺癌患者中的疗效及安全性尚未见报道。

  • T淋巴细胞亚组水平是细胞免疫功能的重要指标。老年患者常合并免疫功能低下,导致肿瘤免疫逃逸,进一步促进肿瘤的发生、进展及转移。监测外周血免疫细胞动态变化情况在判断患者免疫功能、评估患者预后方面,具有重要的临床运用价值,但目前相关研究尚不足。

  • 基于此,本研究分析安罗替尼联合PD⁃1单抗对无驱动基因突变的老年肺腺癌患者二线治疗的有效性和安全性,及对外周血T淋巴细胞水平的影响,探讨本方案对老年肺腺癌患者治疗的应用价值。

  • 1 对象和方法

  • 1.1 对象

  • 收集2018年10月—2020年6月在南京医科大学附属肿瘤医院接受二线治疗的老年晚期肺腺癌患者资料。本研究已通过南京医科大学伦理委员会批准,所有入组患者签署知情同意书。纳入标准: ①经病理学证实为 NSCLC 且均为腺癌,表皮生长因子受体(epidermal growth factor receptor,EGFR)、间变性淋巴瘤激酶(anaplastic lymphoma kinase, ALK)等驱动基因阴性;②经影像学证实具有远处转移;③患者年龄≥65岁;④既往接受过1种化疗,并且未接受过 PD⁃1 单抗及/或安罗替尼治疗;⑤血液学检查符合治疗标准;⑥行为状态评分(Karnofsky performance score,KPS)≥70分;⑦根据实体瘤疗效评价标准(response evaluation criteria in solid tumors, RECIST)1.1版的疗效评估标准,具有至少1个可测量病灶。排除标准:①合并其他恶性肿瘤;②具有感染性疾病且行抗感染治疗或具有免疫系统疾病;③具有严重心、肺、肝、肾等重要脏器功能不全; ④患有严重精神疾病;⑤资料不全,无法随访者。

  • 1.2 方法

  • 1.2.1 治疗方案

  • 本研究使用的 PD⁃1 单抗包括:纳武利尤单抗 (百时美施贵宝公司,美国,3 mg/kg,静脉输注,每 2 周 1 次;帕博利珠单抗(默沙东公司,美国,规格: 100 mg/4 mL,200 mg,静脉输注,每3周1次)。盐酸安罗替尼(连云港正大天晴公司,规格:12 mg/粒或 10 mg/粒或 8 mg/粒,1 粒/d,口服 2 周停服 1 周,每 3 周 1 次)治疗。若病情进展,则停止用药;若出现 3或 4 级不良反应,则下调安罗替尼口服剂量至下一剂量等级,若起始剂量为 12 mg/d,第 1 次下调至 10 mg/d,第 2 次下调至 8 mg/d,第 3 次停止治疗;若起始剂量为10 mg/d,第1次下调至8 mg/d,第2次停止治疗;若起始剂量为8 mg/d,则第1次停止治疗。

  • 1.2.2 疗效评价

  • 每 2 周期行影像学检查,根据 RECIST1.1 版评估临床疗效:完全缓解(complete remission,CR)、部分缓解(partial remission,PR)、疾病稳定(stable disease,SD)、疾病进展(progressive disease,PD)。 ORR定义为(CR+PR)/(CR+PR+SD+ PD)×100%;疾病控制率(disease control rate,DCR)定义为(CR + PR+SD)/(CR+PR+SD+PD)×100%。PFS定义为从开始使用PD⁃1单抗联合安罗替尼治疗到PD或死亡的时间。

  • 1.2.3 不良反应评估

  • 治疗期间每周期前行血常规、生化、甲状腺功能、心电图、心肌酶学检查评估不良反应;不良事件的评价采用不良反应术语标准(common terminology criteria for adverse events,CTCAE)5.0版。

  • 1.2.4 T淋巴细胞亚群检测

  • 开始治疗前1天及2个周期治疗结束后用乙二胺四乙酸(ethylene diamine tetra acetic,EDTA)管采集静脉全血标本,1 h内送检,采用流式细胞技术检测受试者外周血T淋巴细胞亚群变化,包括 CD3+、 CD4+、CD8+ 细胞百分比,并计算 CD4+ /CD8+ 水平。

  • 1.2.5 随访

  • 对患者进行生存随访至2021年6月,以患者病情进展作为随访终点事件,中位随访时间8个月。

  • 1.3 统计学方法

  • 采用 Excel 软件录入数据,采用 SPSS 22.0 进行统计学分析。采用均数±标准差(x-± s)表示计量资料,采用百分比[n(%)]表示计数资料,两组间对比采用独立 t 检验,组内治疗前后对比采用配对 t 检验。P <0.05为差异有统计学意义。

  • 2 结果

  • 2.1 基线数据

  • 2018 年 10 月—2020 年 6 月,共有 32 例 NSCLC 患者入组本研究。患者的平均年龄为73.8岁,中位年龄 73 岁。25 例(78.1%)患者在入组时 KPS评分为 80 分,7 例(21.8%)患者在入组时的 KPS 评分为 70分。入组脑转移患者5例(15.6%)。4例(12.5%)患者的程序性死亡配体1(programmed cell death ligand 1, PD⁃L1)肿瘤比例评分(tumor proportion score,TPS)高于 50%;6 例(18.8%)低于 1%;13 例(40.6%)的 TPS 评分在1%至49%;9例(28.1%)未知PD⁃L1 TPS。首次接受 12 mg 安罗替尼剂量的患者为 17 例 (53.1%);接受 10 mg 安罗替尼剂量的患者为 11 例 (34.4%),接受 8 mg 安罗替尼剂量的患者为 4 例 (12.5%)。

  • 2.2 近期疗效

  • 0 例(0%)患者获得 CR;9 例(28.1%)患者获得 PR;19例(59.4%)患者为SD;4例(12.5%)患者病情进展。ORR为28.1%,DCR为87.5%。总体中位PFS为6.2个月。对于5例脑转移患者进行亚组分析,中位PFS为3.9个月,无脑转移患者中位PFS为10.1个月,两组差异存在统计学意义(P <0.05,表1)。

  • 表1 安罗替尼联合PD⁃1抑制剂二线治疗老年晚期肺腺癌的近期疗效

  • Table1 Short term efficacy of Anlotinib combined with PD ⁃ 1 inhibitor in the treatment of advanced lung adenocarcinoma in the elderly

  • 2.3 不良反应

  • 最常见的 1~2 级不良事件为高血压(15/32, 46.8%)、乏力(12/32,37.5%)和食欲下降(10/32, 31.2%)。其他 1~2 级不良事件为皮疹(8/32, 25.0%)、口腔溃疡(7/32,21.9%)、恶心(6/32,18.8%) 和肝功能异常(4/32,12.5%)。3~4级不良事件为皮疹(5/32,15.6%)、高血压(4/32,12.5%)、口腔溃疡 (3/32,9.4%)。整体安全性良好(表2)。

  • 表2 治疗相关不良反应

  • Table2 Treatment⁃related adverse event

  • 2.4 T淋巴细胞亚群

  • 治疗2周期后CD3+、CD4+、CD4+ /CD8+ 细胞水平明显高于治疗前,CD8 + 细胞水平明显低于治疗前 (P <0.01,表3)。

  • 3 讨论

  • 以PD⁃1单抗为代表的肿瘤免疫治疗极大地改善了NSCLC患者的结局,成为一线NSCLC治疗方案的一部分。但是作为二线或三线用药,单用PD⁃1单抗在NSCLC患者中的治疗效果有限。因此,如何通过组合药物种类或布局用药时序,从而提高免疫治疗的疗效是近期研究的热点。

  • 表3 治疗前后外周血淋巴细胞亚群比较

  • Table3 Comparison of peripheral blood lymphocyte subsets before and after treatment

  • 实体瘤免疫治疗的局限性在于肿瘤微环境中多种免疫抑制成分的激活[9]。前期研究显示,血管内皮生长因子(vascular endothelial growth factor, VEGF)⁃VEGFR 信号通路过度激活可通过抑制细胞间黏附分子⁃1和血管细胞黏附分子⁃1表达上调,直接抑制免疫细胞向肿瘤的转运,参与肿瘤免疫抑制[10]。此外,VEGF 还可通过增强免疫抑制细胞因子如白细胞介素⁃10、转化生长因子⁃β,增强CD8+ T 淋巴细胞中抑制性检查点如 PD⁃1、细胞毒性 T 淋巴细胞相关蛋白 4 的表达、增加骨髓来源的抑制性细胞和调节性 T 细胞表达等多途径,改变肿瘤微环境[11]。因此促肿瘤微环境正常化的抗血管生成药物有可能提高免疫治疗效果。抗VEGFR2药物与PD⁃1单抗联合治疗可促进肿瘤血管正常化并诱导产生高内皮微静脉,进一步通过激活淋巴毒素β 受体信号转导促进淋巴细胞浸润和活化[12]。动物实验进一步证实,在荷瘤小鼠中应用抗VEGFR抗体可降低CD8+ T淋巴细胞中PD⁃1的表达[13]。在肺癌小鼠模型中,安罗替尼被证明可促进自然杀伤细胞、M1样肿瘤相关巨噬细胞和树突状细胞的浸润,参与肿瘤免疫微环境的调节[14]。这些前期研究结果为抗血管生成治疗联合 PD ⁃ 1 单抗治疗晚期 NSCLC提供了充分的数据支持。

  • 在大型临床研究 KEYNOTE⁃001 中,二线单独使用帕博利珠单抗的ORR为19.0%,中位PFS为3.7 个月[15]。本研使用PD⁃1单抗联合安罗替尼二线治疗无驱动基因突变的老年晚期肺腺癌患者。结果显示 ORR 为 28.1%,DCR 为 87.5%,中位 PFS 为 6.2 个月,优于二线PD⁃1单药的疗效。其机制可能是安罗替尼改变了肿瘤免疫微环境。研究显示,安罗替尼可抑制血管内皮细胞PD⁃L1表达,从而突破“免疫耐受屏障”,促进 CD8+ T 细胞浸润,提高 CD8+ /叉盒蛋白3(fork⁃head box protein 3,FoxP3+)T淋巴细胞比例,改变肿瘤微环境[16]。同时,PD⁃1单抗可促进血管正常化[17],从而导致这两种药物的优势相互叠加,产生协同作用。

  • 免疫功能状态是肿瘤发生、进展的直接影响因素之一。T 淋巴细胞是 PD⁃1 单抗疗效评估的潜在预测生物标志物。外周血T淋巴细胞亚群相较于组织,具有易于获得的优势,在评估肿瘤患者预后、指导临床用药方面具有重要意义。CD3+ T 淋巴细胞涉及T细胞信号传输。CD4+ T淋巴细胞可识别抗原信号,CD8+ T淋巴细胞是一种抑制性T细胞,有杀伤细胞的作用。CD4+ /CD8+ 水平可以反映机体细胞免疫功能的水平[18-19]。本研究结果表明,与治疗前相比较,治疗2周期后CD3+、CD4+、CD4+ /CD8+ 水平显著提高,CD8+ 细胞水平显著降低,说明入组患者经治疗后细胞免疫水平有所改善,患者免疫调节能力增强。进一步说明通过本治疗方案,患者的生活质量得到了改善。

  • 本研究中,PD⁃l单抗联合安罗替尼治疗最常见的毒性反应为1~2级,少有患者因不良事件而停止治疗。3~4 级不良事件为皮疹、高血压与口腔溃疡。大多数不良事件不影响治疗或可以通过激素冲击治疗解决。因此在老年患者人群中,本方案安全性和耐受性良好。

  • 本研究的局限为样本量较小,后续本研究团队将开展更大规模、多中心的临床研究,进一步确定用药最佳剂量和时间,并探索预测性生物标志物,以期筛选本方案的优势人群。

  • 综上,安罗替尼联合PD⁃1单抗在老年肺腺癌患者的二线治疗中,可提高近期疗效,延长无进展生存期,并且有助于恢复患者免疫功能,改善生活质量,在临床中具有良好的运用前景,值得进一步研究。

  • 参考文献

    • [1] GANTI A K,KLEIN A B,COTARLA I,et al.Update of incidence,prevalence,survival,and initial treatment in patients with non⁃small cell lung cancer in the US[J].JA⁃ MA Oncol,2021,7(12):1824-1832

    • [2] BRAHMER J,RECKAMP K L,BAAS P,et al.Nivolum⁃ ab versus docetaxel in advanced squamous⁃cell non⁃small⁃cell lung cancer[J].N Engl J Med,2015,373(2):123-135

    • [3] RECK M,BRAHMER J,BENNETT B,et al.Evaluation of health⁃related quality of life and symptoms in patients with advanced non⁃squamous non⁃small cell lung cancer treated with nivolumab or docetaxel in CheckMate 057 [J].Eur J Cancer,2018,102:23-30

    • [4] CHANG J,WU Y L,LU S,et al.Three⁃year follow⁃up and patient⁃reported outcomes from CheckMate 078:Nivolum⁃ ab versus docetaxel in a predominantly Chinese patient population with previously treated advanced non ⁃ small cell lung cancer[J].Lung Cancer,2021,165:71-81

    • [5] FEHRENBACHER L,VON PAWEL J,PARK K,et al.Updated efficacy analysis including secondary population results for OAK:a randomized phase Ⅲ study of atezoli⁃ zumab versus docetaxel in patients with previously treat⁃ ed advanced non⁃small cell lung cancer[J].J Thorac On⁃ col,2018,13(8):1156-1170

    • [6] HEGDE P S,WALLIN J J,MANCAO C.Predictive mark⁃ ers of anti⁃VEGF and emerging role of angiogenesis inhib⁃ itors as immunotherapeutics[J].Semin Cancer Biol,2018,52(2):117-124

    • [7] CAI X,WEI B,LI L,et al.Apatinib enhanced anti⁃PD⁃1 therapy for colon cancer in mice via promoting PD⁃L1 ex⁃ pression[J].Int Immunopharmacol,2020,88:106858

    • [8] HUANG Y,KIM B Y S,CHAN C K,et al.Improving im⁃ mune ⁃ vascular crosstalk for cancer immunotherapy[J].Nat Rev Immunol,2018,18(3):195-203

    • [9] TERME M,PERNOT S,MARCHETEAU E,et al.VEGFA⁃ VEGFR pathway blockade inhibits tumor⁃induced regula⁃ tory T ⁃ cell proliferation in colorectal cancer[J].Cancer Res,2013,73(2):539-549

    • [10] HAN B,LI K,WANG Q,et al.Effect of anlotinib as a third ⁃Line or further treatment on overall survival of pa⁃ tients with advanced non⁃small cell lung cancer:the AL⁃ TER 0303 phase 3 randomized clinical trial[J].JAMA Oncol,2018,4(11):1569-1575

    • [11] GAO F,YANG C.Anti⁃VEGF/VEGFR2 monoclonal anti⁃ bodies and their combinations with PD ⁃ 1/PD ⁃ L1 inhibi⁃ tors in clinic[J].Curr Cancer Drug Targets,2020,20(1):3-18

    • [12] 王梦玮,徐天蔚,王朝霞.PD⁃1/PD⁃L1免疫检查点抑制剂在肺癌临床研究中的进展[J].南京医科大学学报(自然科学版),2021,41(7):1084-1094

    • [13] YANG J,YAN J,LIU B.Targeting VEGF/VEGFR to mod⁃ ulate antitumor immunity[J].Front Immunol,2018,9:978

    • [14] YANG Y,LI L,JIANG Z,et al.Anlotinib optimizes anti⁃ tumor innate immunity to potentiate the therapeutic effect of PD⁃1 blockade in lung cancer[J].Cancer Immunol Im⁃ munother,2020,69(12):2523-2532

    • [15] ZHANG C,ZHANG J,TAN J,et al.Cost⁃effectiveness of pembrolizumab for the treatment of non ⁃ small ⁃ cell lung cancer:a systematic review[J].Front Oncol,2022,12:815587

    • [16] LIU S,QIN T,LIU Z,et al.anlotinib alters tumor immune microenvironment by downregulating PD ⁃ L1 expression on vascular endothelial cells[J].Cell Death Dis,2020,11(5):309

    • [17] KOHEI S,MEENAL D,TAI H,et al.Dual programmed death receptor ⁃ 1 and vascular endothelial growth factor receptor⁃2 blockade promotes vascular normalization and enhances antitumor immune responses in hepatocellular carcinoma[J].Hepatol Baltim Md,2020,71(4):1247-1261

    • [18] GONZALEZ H,HAGERLING C,WERB Z.Roles of the immune system in cancer:from tumor initiation to meta⁃ static progression[J].Genes Dev,2018,32(19/20):1267-1284

    • [19] BORST J,AHRENDS T,BABAŁA N,et al.CD4 + T cell help in cancer immunology and immunotherapy[J].Nat Rev Immunol,2018,18(10):635-647

  • 参考文献

    • [1] GANTI A K,KLEIN A B,COTARLA I,et al.Update of incidence,prevalence,survival,and initial treatment in patients with non⁃small cell lung cancer in the US[J].JA⁃ MA Oncol,2021,7(12):1824-1832

    • [2] BRAHMER J,RECKAMP K L,BAAS P,et al.Nivolum⁃ ab versus docetaxel in advanced squamous⁃cell non⁃small⁃cell lung cancer[J].N Engl J Med,2015,373(2):123-135

    • [3] RECK M,BRAHMER J,BENNETT B,et al.Evaluation of health⁃related quality of life and symptoms in patients with advanced non⁃squamous non⁃small cell lung cancer treated with nivolumab or docetaxel in CheckMate 057 [J].Eur J Cancer,2018,102:23-30

    • [4] CHANG J,WU Y L,LU S,et al.Three⁃year follow⁃up and patient⁃reported outcomes from CheckMate 078:Nivolum⁃ ab versus docetaxel in a predominantly Chinese patient population with previously treated advanced non ⁃ small cell lung cancer[J].Lung Cancer,2021,165:71-81

    • [5] FEHRENBACHER L,VON PAWEL J,PARK K,et al.Updated efficacy analysis including secondary population results for OAK:a randomized phase Ⅲ study of atezoli⁃ zumab versus docetaxel in patients with previously treat⁃ ed advanced non⁃small cell lung cancer[J].J Thorac On⁃ col,2018,13(8):1156-1170

    • [6] HEGDE P S,WALLIN J J,MANCAO C.Predictive mark⁃ ers of anti⁃VEGF and emerging role of angiogenesis inhib⁃ itors as immunotherapeutics[J].Semin Cancer Biol,2018,52(2):117-124

    • [7] CAI X,WEI B,LI L,et al.Apatinib enhanced anti⁃PD⁃1 therapy for colon cancer in mice via promoting PD⁃L1 ex⁃ pression[J].Int Immunopharmacol,2020,88:106858

    • [8] HUANG Y,KIM B Y S,CHAN C K,et al.Improving im⁃ mune ⁃ vascular crosstalk for cancer immunotherapy[J].Nat Rev Immunol,2018,18(3):195-203

    • [9] TERME M,PERNOT S,MARCHETEAU E,et al.VEGFA⁃ VEGFR pathway blockade inhibits tumor⁃induced regula⁃ tory T ⁃ cell proliferation in colorectal cancer[J].Cancer Res,2013,73(2):539-549

    • [10] HAN B,LI K,WANG Q,et al.Effect of anlotinib as a third ⁃Line or further treatment on overall survival of pa⁃ tients with advanced non⁃small cell lung cancer:the AL⁃ TER 0303 phase 3 randomized clinical trial[J].JAMA Oncol,2018,4(11):1569-1575

    • [11] GAO F,YANG C.Anti⁃VEGF/VEGFR2 monoclonal anti⁃ bodies and their combinations with PD ⁃ 1/PD ⁃ L1 inhibi⁃ tors in clinic[J].Curr Cancer Drug Targets,2020,20(1):3-18

    • [12] 王梦玮,徐天蔚,王朝霞.PD⁃1/PD⁃L1免疫检查点抑制剂在肺癌临床研究中的进展[J].南京医科大学学报(自然科学版),2021,41(7):1084-1094

    • [13] YANG J,YAN J,LIU B.Targeting VEGF/VEGFR to mod⁃ ulate antitumor immunity[J].Front Immunol,2018,9:978

    • [14] YANG Y,LI L,JIANG Z,et al.Anlotinib optimizes anti⁃ tumor innate immunity to potentiate the therapeutic effect of PD⁃1 blockade in lung cancer[J].Cancer Immunol Im⁃ munother,2020,69(12):2523-2532

    • [15] ZHANG C,ZHANG J,TAN J,et al.Cost⁃effectiveness of pembrolizumab for the treatment of non ⁃ small ⁃ cell lung cancer:a systematic review[J].Front Oncol,2022,12:815587

    • [16] LIU S,QIN T,LIU Z,et al.anlotinib alters tumor immune microenvironment by downregulating PD ⁃ L1 expression on vascular endothelial cells[J].Cell Death Dis,2020,11(5):309

    • [17] KOHEI S,MEENAL D,TAI H,et al.Dual programmed death receptor ⁃ 1 and vascular endothelial growth factor receptor⁃2 blockade promotes vascular normalization and enhances antitumor immune responses in hepatocellular carcinoma[J].Hepatol Baltim Md,2020,71(4):1247-1261

    • [18] GONZALEZ H,HAGERLING C,WERB Z.Roles of the immune system in cancer:from tumor initiation to meta⁃ static progression[J].Genes Dev,2018,32(19/20):1267-1284

    • [19] BORST J,AHRENDS T,BABAŁA N,et al.CD4 + T cell help in cancer immunology and immunotherapy[J].Nat Rev Immunol,2018,18(10):635-647