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通讯作者:

陆巍峰,E-mail:lulaotou@126.com

中图分类号:R726

文献标识码:A

文章编号:1007-4368(2023)06-881-05

DOI:10.7655/NYDXBNS20230621

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目录contents

    摘要

    多发伤是急诊常见的危重症,儿童多发伤更有其自身的临床特点。早期识别、精准诊断、正确评估是降低多发伤致残率、病死率的关键。目前儿童创伤评分种类繁多,且越来越多的预测模型被提出,可有效判断病情严重程度及预测预后。在成像方式及时机选择上需考虑患儿状态、损伤情况、准确度及有无辐射等多种因素。影像学的发展提高了对疾病的认识,也对接诊医生提出了更高的要求。实验室检查同样可以明确诊断及预测并发症,但在时效性及获取难易程度方面参差不齐。对于多发伤患儿,结合两者进行评估更合适。随着研究的深入,多发伤的评估更加精细,但在儿童这一群体中仍有一定局限性,存在较大发展空间。

    Abstract

    Multiple trauma is a common critical disease in emergency department,and multiple trauma in children has its own clinical characteristics. Early identification,accurate diagnosis and correct evaluation are the keys to reduce the rate of disability and mortality. At present,there are many kinds of pediatric trauma scores,and more and more prediction models have been proposed, which can effectively judge the severity of the disease and predict the prognosis. In the selection of imaging method and timing,many factors should be considered,such as the state of the child,injury,accuracy and radiation. The continuous development of diagnostic imaging has improved the understanding of diseases and put forward higher requirements for doctors. Laboratory examination can also clearly diagnose and predict complications,but its timeliness and accessibility are uneven,and the cost may also need to be considered clinically. It is more appropriate to evaluate the children with multiple injuries by combining the two methods. With the deepening of research,the assessment of multiple trauma has been more sophisticated,but there are still certain limitations in children,leaving great development space.

  • 多发伤定义为机体在单一致伤因素作用下,同时或相继遭受≥2个解剖部位的损伤,其中1处即使单独存在也可危及生命[1]。儿童耐受力差、沟通能力差、配合程度不高,容易造成漏诊,致残率和病死率较高。早期识别、精准诊断、正确评估是降低多发伤致残率、病死率的关键。本文将从评分体系、影像学检查及实验室检查3个方面对儿童多发伤的评估进展作如下综述。

  • 1 创伤评分

  • 1.1 损伤严重程度评分(injury severity score,ISS)和新损伤严重程度评分(new injury severity score,NISS)

  • 1974 年 Baker 等[2]提出的 ISS 评分目前应用最广泛。它把人体划分为头颈部、面部、胸部、腹部和盆腔内脏器、四肢和骨盆带、体表6 个区域,取 3 个最严重损伤区域,计算最高简明损伤定级标准(abbriviated injury scale,AIS)值的平方和。Wendling⁃ Keim 等[3]指出 ISS 能更好地识别需要手术的患儿,对患儿预后的综合评估具有很高的应用价值。但因其属于解剖学评分,忽略了生理因素,单独使用将遗漏大量需要干预的情况[4]。针对 ISS 的不足,1997年Osler等[5]提出了NISS评分。有研究显示其在预测严重钝性创伤的预后、预测 ICU 入院和 ICU 住院时间方面优于ISS[6],是准确分诊的最佳预测指标[7],但结合美国四大儿童医院的统计数据,儿童中两者的预测能力没有显著差异[8]

  • 1.2 儿童创伤评分(pediatric trauma score,PTS)

  • PTS评分是一类可用于儿童院前及院内评估的生理评分,包括呼吸/惊醒、收缩压、体重、软组织和骨折的表现及严重程度[9],其优点在于简单易于计算,无需特殊的实验数据。韩国一项回顾性研究显示 PTS 对颅内出血(intracranial hemorrhage,ICH)具有很高的预测性[10],但其对腹内实质性脏器损伤的评估有限,其评分主观性对准确性也有一定影响[11]

  • 1.3 BIG评分

  • BIG 评分以基础缺陷(basic dificit,BD)/国际标准化比率(international normalized ratio,INR)和格拉斯哥昏迷评分(Glasgow coma scale,GCS)为关键指标,是新兴的简易院内评分系统[12]。虽然该评分未在儿童中广泛使用,但有研究证实BIG可作为创伤性脑损伤患儿出院时功能依赖的独立预测指标[13]

  • 1.4 创伤评分(trauma score,TS)、修正创伤评分 (revised trauma score,RTS)

  • TS评分方法将呼吸频率、幅度、收缩压、毛细血管充盈情况、GCS分级5项评分相加[14]。由于判定呼吸频率和毛细血管充盈情况时存在差异,在去除该两项指标后又提出了 RTS。TS 和 RTS 都有助于评估病情严重程度,并可预测病死率,但由于呼吸频率和收缩压为成人阈值,在儿童中的应用还有待商榷。近年有学者提出用休克指数和外周血氧饱和度取代收缩压和呼吸频率,并添加温度,创造一个更准确的模型[15],但在临床上还未投入大规模使用。

  • 1.5 其他

  • 儿童创伤评分体系繁多,在此基础上新的预测模型正在不断开发。日本学者结合年龄创伤评级指数、GCS、呼吸频率和收缩压,提出了较RTS更简单且能更好地预测住院死亡率的 TRIAGES 评分 (the trauma rating index in age,Glasgow coma scale, respiratory rate and systolic blood pressure,TRIAGESscore)[16],Keskey 等[17]结合年龄和损伤机制提出了创伤综合评分(trauma composite score,TCS)和修订创伤综合评分(abbreviated trauma composite score,aTCS),并指出它们在钝性创伤死亡率预测方面较 ISS 准确。儿童创伤评分虽多,但目前没有哪种评分可以同时满足临床及科研需求,在评估儿童多发伤时可以多种评分重复使用。

  • 2 影像学检查

  • 2.1 CT

  • 对于血流动力学稳定的患儿,CT 可以提供快速、准确的脑损伤定位和范围信息。且有研究显示,CT 血管造影(CT angiography,CTA)作为一项非侵入性检查,在识别钝性脑血管损伤方面较数字减影血管造影(digital subtraction angiography,DSA)特异性更高[18]。美国创伤外科协会(American Associ⁃ ation for the Surgery of Trauma,AAST)基于 CT、手术和病理提出的器官损伤严重程度评分(organ injury scale,OIS)是最常用的腹部损伤分类标准[19],临床上多根据该评分预测是否需要干预,以及发病率和死亡率。也有人指出结合影像学的CT严重程度指数(CT severity index,CTSI)在预测死亡率方面更有优势[20]。CT具有易行、快速、高特异性及敏感性的特点,但其成本更高,造影剂的使用可能引起过敏及肾病,不建议儿童使用成人常规使用的全身CT[21]

  • 2.2 超声

  • 经颅多普勒(transcranial Doppler,TCD)对儿童重型颅脑损伤后ICH和脑灌注压(cerebral perfusion pressure,CPP)异常的检测具有较高敏感性[22].通过 TCD无创监测颅内压(intracranial pressure,ICP)一直是研究的热点。同样以有创ICP为基准,王婧等[23]通过超声所测得的视神经鞘直径与ICP高度相关,而 Cardim 等[24]通过超声测出血流速度联合平均动脉压计算得出的ICP并不够准确,这可能需要进一步完善计算公式。Sokoloff等[25] 证实利用TCD测出的血液流速可在创伤性颅脑损伤后早期(≤24 h)检测出脑组织缺氧,在临床上有很大的发展空间。创伤超声聚焦评估(focused assessment with sonography for trauma,FAST)可探查 4 个区域(剑突下区、左季肋区、右季肋区、盆腔)确定游离积液,但其作用有限,因为只有不到一半的腹部损伤患儿存在游离液体。许多创伤中心已使用扩展的 FAST 扫描技术(extended ⁃FAST,e ⁃FAST)进行胸部评估,识别血胸、气胸,甚至心包积血的存在[26]。Devadoss等[27]通过比较110例胸部损伤患者CT与e⁃FAST的结果发现两者在诊断上并无统计学差别,结合B超易行、低廉、无辐射的优点,e⁃FAST可成为胸部钝性创伤患者诊断和治疗更好的辅助手段。而在此之前,CT是诊断钝性胸部损伤的金标准。除了以上优点,超声在动态图像获取、功能应用、床边测试方面更灵活,但对操作者的技术要求高,且在接触患儿时可能引起疼痛而使操作困难或不准确。

  • 2.3 其他

  • 对于血流动力学不稳定的患者,可行X线检查排除气胸、主动脉损伤、椎体及骨盆骨折等,X线易行、快速、低廉,但有辐射,且因其二维成像特点,重叠结构及软组织成像困难。磁共振成像(magnetic resonance imaging,MRI)无辐射,且具有高特异性及敏感性,在评估胰腺及脊髓损伤方面更有优势,尤其是磁共振胰胆管造影(magnetic resonance cholan⁃ giopancreatography,MRCP)有100%的准确性[21]。但 MRI成本高,成像及阅片时间长,对儿童镇静的要求比较高。影像学检查方法各有侧重及优缺点,临床上可根据患儿状态、损伤情况及成像要求,在节省时间和辐射暴露方面选择最优化的检查方案。目前影像学更新快,医护也需不断学习和开发新技术,今后可能需要更多培训。

  • 3 实验室检查

  • 3.1 炎症标志物

  • 创伤后严重的组织损伤会立即触发先天免疫系统的激活,因此某些特异性炎症标志物可明确诊断甚至预测预后。苏黎世大学医院通过沃森创伤路径浏览器这一人工智能工具分析了患者多个时间点的 C 反应蛋白(C⁃reactive protein,CRP)值及创伤结局,指出CRP是并发脓毒症的独立预测因子,且可作为初始手术损伤控制干预成功的标志[28]。创伤后最初24 h内血清白细胞介素(interleukin,IL)⁃6浓度可用于预测多器官功能障碍(multiple organ dys⁃ function syndrome,MODS)和死亡率[29]。我国学者通过大量数据分析得出IL⁃17可作为预测创伤患者肺挫伤严重程度和预后的潜在指标[30]。近年也有研究指出严重创伤特别是存在广泛组织损伤和早期凝血功能障碍的患者会出现 IL⁃33 激增[31],但其在儿童中的意义缺乏进一步研究。

  • 3.2 酸碱平衡指标

  • 入院后24 h内,乳酸与住院输血需求及死亡率相关[32-33]。韩国某医院比较了乳酸和碱缺失(basedeficit,BD)与儿童创伤后结局的关系,指出在儿童创伤中,乳酸与死亡率的相关性较BD更强[34],也有文献指出在评估输血需求及区分高风险创伤患者方面,乳酸不如BD[35]

  • 3.3 器官损伤标志物

  • 心肌肌钙蛋白(cardiac troponin,cTn)是一类可靠的心脏损伤生物标志物。一项ICU患者的回归分析显示肌钙蛋白 I(tropoini I,TnI)是创伤后早期死亡的独立预测因子,且与胸部创伤密切相关[36]。 Braun等[37]还发现肌钙蛋白T(troponin T,TnT)与儿童创伤后 IL⁃6 水平和肌酸激酶活性呈正相关。虽然目前还不能确定是直接心脏损伤还是增强的全身炎症状态通过体液介质进一步损害心脏细胞或两者兼有,但 TnT>14 pg/mL 的患儿明显需要更长时间的监护。另外在猪的多发伤模型中,心脏脂肪酸结合蛋白(heart fatty acid binding protein,HFABP)也被证明可用于检测创伤后的早期心肌损伤[38],但是否可以将其纳入儿童多发伤的实验室诊断指标还需要进一步研究。我国学者在对比创伤性颅脑损伤患者和健康人的外周血S100钙结合蛋白、同型半胱氨酸及神经元特异性烯醇化酶水平后,指出颅脑损伤患者血肿吸收情况和认知功能与上述指标具有明显的相关性[39],但是鉴于检验技术及费用等问题,某些指标难以在短期内获取。

  • 3.4 其他

  • 一些 microRNA,比如 microRNA⁃150 等既可以早期诊断多发伤后的脓毒症,也可以作为治疗靶点,阻止体内各种生化反应[40]。联合使用几种指标能更好地预测多发伤后并发症,有学者指出髓样细胞表达的可溶性触发受体 ⁃1、降钙素原和 CRP 的联合检测对多发性创伤性急性呼吸窘迫综合征(acute respiratory distress syndrome,ARDS)合并肺部感染具有较高的预测价值[41],琥珀酸半醛、尿嘧啶和尿苷3个潜在的生物标志物可用于多发伤合并脓毒症的临床诊断[42]。器官损伤主要还是通过各种成像方法进行评估,有意义的实验室检查指标在时效性及获取难易程度方面参差不齐,且临床上还需考虑费用等问题,结合两者来评估儿童多发伤更为合适。

  • 4 展望

  • 儿童的解剖、生理参数和阈值与成人不同,有自身的临床特点,多系统同时受累也导致其诊治更加复杂。院前利用创伤评分系统评估病情严重程度、优化抢救流程,入院后结合影像学及实验室检查进一步明确诊断并判断病情走向,以及多学科联合诊治环环相扣,都需要医务人员快速反应和技术支持。虽然临床及科研工作者不断地探索,但儿童多发伤的评估总体落后于成人,仍有较大发展空间。

  • 参考文献

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    • [2] BAKER S P,O'NEILL B,HADDON W J,et al.The injury severity score:a method for describing patients with multi⁃ ple injuries and evaluating emergency care[J].J Trauma,1974,14(3):187-196

    • [3] WENDLING⁃KEIM D S,HEFELE A,MUENSTERER O,et al.Trauma scores and their prognostic value for the out⁃ come following pediatric polytrauma[J].Front Pediatr,2021,9:721585

    • [4] WAYDHAS C,BIELER D,HAMSEN U,et al.ISS alone,is not sufficient to correctly assign patients post hoc to trauma team requirement[J].Eur J Trauma Emerg Surg,2022,48(1):383-392

    • [5] OSLER T,BAKER S P,LONG W.A modification of the injury severity score that both improves accuracy and simplifies scoring[J].J Trauma,1997,43(6):922-925

    • [6] LI H,MA Y F.New injury severity score(NISS)outper⁃ forms injury severity score(ISS)in the evaluation of se⁃ vere blunt trauma patients[J].Chin J Traumatol,2021,24(5):261-265

    • [7] LARKIN E J,JONES M K,YOUNG S D,et al.Interest of the MGAP score on in⁃hospital trauma patients:compari⁃ son with TRISS,ISS and NISS scores[J].Injury,2022,53(9):3059-3064

    • [8] GRISONI E,STALLION A,NANCE M L,et al.The new injury severity score and the evaluation of pediatric trau⁃ ma[J].J Trauma,2001,50(6):1106-1110

    • [9] TEPAS J R,MOLLITT D L,TALBERT J L,et al.The pe⁃ diatric trauma score as a predictor of injury severity in the injured child[J].J Pediatr Surg,1987,22(1):14-18

    • [10] KIM H J,EUN S,YOON S H,et al.Paediatric trauma score as a non ⁃ imaging tool for predicting intracranial haemorrhage in patients with traumatic brain injury[J].Sci Rep,2021,11(1):20911

    • [11] 明美秀,陆国平.小儿创伤评分[J].中国小儿急救医学,2019,26(2):86-89

    • [12] BORGMAN M A,MAEGELE M,WADE C E,et al.Pedi⁃ atric trauma BIG score:predicting mortality in children af⁃ ter military and civilian trauma[J].Pediatrics,2011,127(4):892-897

    • [13] DAVIS A L,HOCHSTADTER E,DAYA T,et al.The base deficit,international normalized ratio,and glasgow coma scale(BIG)score,and functional outcome at hospi⁃ tal discharge in children with traumatic brain injury[J].Pediatr Crit Care Med,2019,20(10):970-979

    • [14] CHAMPION H R,SACCO W J,CARNAZZO A J,et al.Trauma score[J].Crit Care Med,1981,9(9):672-676

    • [15] FILIPESCU R,POWERS C,YU H,et al.Improving the performance of the revised trauma score using shock index,peripheral oxygen saturation,and temperature ⁃a National Trauma Database study 2011 to 2015[J].Surgery,2020,167(5):821-828

    • [16] SHIRAISHI A,OTOMO Y,YOSHIKAWA S,et al.Deri⁃ vation and validation of an easy⁃to⁃compute trauma score that improves prognostication of mortality or the trauma rating index in age,glasgow coma scale,respiratory rate and systolic blood pressure(TRIAGES)score[J].Crit Care,2019,23(1):365

    • [17] KESKEY R C,HAMPTON D A,BIERMANN H,et al.Novel trauma composite score is a more reliable predictor of mortality than injury severity score in pediatric trauma [J].J Trauma Acute Care Surg,2021,91(4):599-604

    • [18] KIK C C,SLOOFF W M,MOAYERI N,et al.Diagnostic accuracy of computed tomography angiography(CTA)for diagnosing blunt cerebrovascular injury in trauma pa⁃ tients:a systematic review and meta⁃analysis[J].Eur Ra⁃ diol,2022,32(4):2727-2738

    • [19] KOZAR R A,CRANDALL M,SHANMUGANATHAN K,et al.Organ injury scaling 2018 update:spleen,liver,and kidney[J].J Trauma Acute Care Surg,2018,85(6):1119-1122

    • [20] MORELL⁃HOFERT D,PRIMAVESI F,FODOR M,et al.Validation of the revised 2018 AAST ⁃ OIS classification and the CT severity index for prediction of operative mana⁃ gement and survival in patients with blunt spleen and liv⁃ er injuries[J].Eur Radiol,2020,30(12):6570-6581

    • [21] THIPPESWAMY P B,RAJASEKARAN R B.Imaging in polytrauma ⁃ principles and current concepts[J].J Clin Orthop Trauma,2021,16:106-113

    • [22] PANEITZ D C,AHMAD S.Pediatric trauma update[J].Mo Med,2018,115(5):438-442

    • [23] 王婧,谷亮,张献礼,等.儿童重型颅脑损伤后颅内压与视神经鞘直径的相关性[J].南京医科大学学报(自然科学版),2018,38(12):1778-1780

    • [24] CARDIM D,ROBBA C,CZOSNYKA M,et al.Noninva⁃ sive intracranial pressure estimation with transcranial doppler:a prospective observational study[J].J Neuro⁃ surg Anesthesiol,2020,32(4):349-353

    • [25] SOKOLOFF C,WILLIAMSON D,SERRI K,et al.Clinical usefulness of transcranial doppler as a screening tool for early cerebral hypoxic episodes in patients with moderate and severe traumatic brain injury[J].Neurocrit Care,2020,32(2):486-491

    • [26] MIELE V,DI GIAMPIETRO I,IANNIELLO S,et al.Diag⁃ nostic imaging in pediatric polytrauma management[J].Radiol Med,2015,120(1):33-49

    • [27] DEVADOSS H,SHARMA P,NAIR V V,et al.Diagnostic accuracy of e ⁃ FAST in stable blunt trauma chest:a pro⁃ spective analysis of 110 cases at a tertiary care center [J].Indian J Crit Care Med,2021,25(10):1167-1172

    • [28] MICA L,PAPE H C,NIGGLI P,et al.New time ⁃ related insights into an old laboratory parameter:early CRP dis⁃ covered by IBM Watson trauma pathway explorer(c)as a predictor for sepsis in polytrauma patients[J].J Clin Med,2021,10(23):5470

    • [29] QIAO Z,WANG W,YIN L,et al.Using IL ⁃6 concentra⁃ tions in the first 24 h following trauma to predict immuno⁃ logical complications and mortality in trauma patients:a meta ⁃ analysis[J].Eur J Trauma Emerg Surg,2018,44(5):679-687

    • [30] LI S,QIN Q,LUO D,et al.IL⁃17 is a potential biomarker for predicting the severity and outcomes of pulmonary contusion in trauma patients[J].Biomed Rep,2021,14(1):5

    • [31] SUNDNES O,OTTESTAD W,SCHJALM C,et al.Rapid systemic surge of IL⁃33 after severe human trauma:a pro⁃ spective observational study[J].Mol Med,2021,27(1):29

    • [32] ZADOROZNY E V,WEIGEL T,STONE A,et al.Prehos⁃ pital lactate is associated with the need for blood in trau⁃ ma[J].Prehosp Emerg Care,2022,26(4):590-599

    • [33] RICHARDS J E,MAZZEFFI M A,MASSEY M S,et al.The bitter and the sweet:relationship of lactate,glucose,and mortality after severe blunt trauma[J].Anesth Analg,2021,133(2):455-461

    • [34] HUH Y,KO Y,HWANG K,et al.Admission lactate and base deficit in predicting outcomes of pediatric trauma [J].Shock,2021,55(4):495-500

    • [35] DAVIS J W,DIRKS R C,KAUPS K L,et al.Base deficit is superior to lactate in trauma[J].Am J Surg,2018,215(4):682-685

    • [36] DECAVELE M,GAULT N,GAUSS T,et al.Cardiac tro⁃ ponin I as an early prognosis biomarker after trauma:a ret⁃ rospective cohort study[J].Br J Anaesth,2018,120(6):1158-1164

    • [37] BRAUN C K,SCHAFFER A,WEBER B,et al.The prog⁃ nostic value of troponin in pediatric polytrauma[J].Front Pediatr,2019,7:477

    • [38] KALBITZ M,SCHWARZ S,WEBER B,et al.Cardiac de⁃ pression in pigs after multiple trauma ⁃ characterization of posttraumatic structural and functional alterations[J].Sci Rep,2017,7(1):17861

    • [39] 张雅旋,郭瑞娟,张寅,等.外周血S100钙结合蛋白、 Hcy及神经元特异性烯醇化酶水平与创伤性颅脑损伤患者颅内血肿吸收情况及认知功能的相关性分析[J].南京医科大学学报(自然科学版),2022,42(10):1421-1425

    • [40] ROGOBETE A F,SANDESC D,BEDREAG O H,et al.MicroRNA expression is associated with sepsis disorders in critically ill polytrauma patients[J].Cells,2018,7(12):271

    • [41] ZHENG S,ZHANG W.Predictive values of sTREM ⁃ 1,PCT and CRP for multiple trauma⁃induced acute respira⁃ tory distress syndrome complicated with pulmonary infec⁃ tion[J/OL].Clin Lab,2022,68(12)[2022⁃12⁃01].DOI:10.7754/Clin.Lab.2022.211258

    • [42] FENG K,DAI W,LIU L,et al.Identification of biomark⁃ ers and the mechanisms of multiple trauma complicated with sepsis using metabolomics[J].Front Public Health,2022,10:923170

  • 参考文献

    • [1] 张连阳,王正国.多发伤定义的演进[J].中华创伤杂志,2015,31(9):802-804

    • [2] BAKER S P,O'NEILL B,HADDON W J,et al.The injury severity score:a method for describing patients with multi⁃ ple injuries and evaluating emergency care[J].J Trauma,1974,14(3):187-196

    • [3] WENDLING⁃KEIM D S,HEFELE A,MUENSTERER O,et al.Trauma scores and their prognostic value for the out⁃ come following pediatric polytrauma[J].Front Pediatr,2021,9:721585

    • [4] WAYDHAS C,BIELER D,HAMSEN U,et al.ISS alone,is not sufficient to correctly assign patients post hoc to trauma team requirement[J].Eur J Trauma Emerg Surg,2022,48(1):383-392

    • [5] OSLER T,BAKER S P,LONG W.A modification of the injury severity score that both improves accuracy and simplifies scoring[J].J Trauma,1997,43(6):922-925

    • [6] LI H,MA Y F.New injury severity score(NISS)outper⁃ forms injury severity score(ISS)in the evaluation of se⁃ vere blunt trauma patients[J].Chin J Traumatol,2021,24(5):261-265

    • [7] LARKIN E J,JONES M K,YOUNG S D,et al.Interest of the MGAP score on in⁃hospital trauma patients:compari⁃ son with TRISS,ISS and NISS scores[J].Injury,2022,53(9):3059-3064

    • [8] GRISONI E,STALLION A,NANCE M L,et al.The new injury severity score and the evaluation of pediatric trau⁃ ma[J].J Trauma,2001,50(6):1106-1110

    • [9] TEPAS J R,MOLLITT D L,TALBERT J L,et al.The pe⁃ diatric trauma score as a predictor of injury severity in the injured child[J].J Pediatr Surg,1987,22(1):14-18

    • [10] KIM H J,EUN S,YOON S H,et al.Paediatric trauma score as a non ⁃ imaging tool for predicting intracranial haemorrhage in patients with traumatic brain injury[J].Sci Rep,2021,11(1):20911

    • [11] 明美秀,陆国平.小儿创伤评分[J].中国小儿急救医学,2019,26(2):86-89

    • [12] BORGMAN M A,MAEGELE M,WADE C E,et al.Pedi⁃ atric trauma BIG score:predicting mortality in children af⁃ ter military and civilian trauma[J].Pediatrics,2011,127(4):892-897

    • [13] DAVIS A L,HOCHSTADTER E,DAYA T,et al.The base deficit,international normalized ratio,and glasgow coma scale(BIG)score,and functional outcome at hospi⁃ tal discharge in children with traumatic brain injury[J].Pediatr Crit Care Med,2019,20(10):970-979

    • [14] CHAMPION H R,SACCO W J,CARNAZZO A J,et al.Trauma score[J].Crit Care Med,1981,9(9):672-676

    • [15] FILIPESCU R,POWERS C,YU H,et al.Improving the performance of the revised trauma score using shock index,peripheral oxygen saturation,and temperature ⁃a National Trauma Database study 2011 to 2015[J].Surgery,2020,167(5):821-828

    • [16] SHIRAISHI A,OTOMO Y,YOSHIKAWA S,et al.Deri⁃ vation and validation of an easy⁃to⁃compute trauma score that improves prognostication of mortality or the trauma rating index in age,glasgow coma scale,respiratory rate and systolic blood pressure(TRIAGES)score[J].Crit Care,2019,23(1):365

    • [17] KESKEY R C,HAMPTON D A,BIERMANN H,et al.Novel trauma composite score is a more reliable predictor of mortality than injury severity score in pediatric trauma [J].J Trauma Acute Care Surg,2021,91(4):599-604

    • [18] KIK C C,SLOOFF W M,MOAYERI N,et al.Diagnostic accuracy of computed tomography angiography(CTA)for diagnosing blunt cerebrovascular injury in trauma pa⁃ tients:a systematic review and meta⁃analysis[J].Eur Ra⁃ diol,2022,32(4):2727-2738

    • [19] KOZAR R A,CRANDALL M,SHANMUGANATHAN K,et al.Organ injury scaling 2018 update:spleen,liver,and kidney[J].J Trauma Acute Care Surg,2018,85(6):1119-1122

    • [20] MORELL⁃HOFERT D,PRIMAVESI F,FODOR M,et al.Validation of the revised 2018 AAST ⁃ OIS classification and the CT severity index for prediction of operative mana⁃ gement and survival in patients with blunt spleen and liv⁃ er injuries[J].Eur Radiol,2020,30(12):6570-6581

    • [21] THIPPESWAMY P B,RAJASEKARAN R B.Imaging in polytrauma ⁃ principles and current concepts[J].J Clin Orthop Trauma,2021,16:106-113

    • [22] PANEITZ D C,AHMAD S.Pediatric trauma update[J].Mo Med,2018,115(5):438-442

    • [23] 王婧,谷亮,张献礼,等.儿童重型颅脑损伤后颅内压与视神经鞘直径的相关性[J].南京医科大学学报(自然科学版),2018,38(12):1778-1780

    • [24] CARDIM D,ROBBA C,CZOSNYKA M,et al.Noninva⁃ sive intracranial pressure estimation with transcranial doppler:a prospective observational study[J].J Neuro⁃ surg Anesthesiol,2020,32(4):349-353

    • [25] SOKOLOFF C,WILLIAMSON D,SERRI K,et al.Clinical usefulness of transcranial doppler as a screening tool for early cerebral hypoxic episodes in patients with moderate and severe traumatic brain injury[J].Neurocrit Care,2020,32(2):486-491

    • [26] MIELE V,DI GIAMPIETRO I,IANNIELLO S,et al.Diag⁃ nostic imaging in pediatric polytrauma management[J].Radiol Med,2015,120(1):33-49

    • [27] DEVADOSS H,SHARMA P,NAIR V V,et al.Diagnostic accuracy of e ⁃ FAST in stable blunt trauma chest:a pro⁃ spective analysis of 110 cases at a tertiary care center [J].Indian J Crit Care Med,2021,25(10):1167-1172

    • [28] MICA L,PAPE H C,NIGGLI P,et al.New time ⁃ related insights into an old laboratory parameter:early CRP dis⁃ covered by IBM Watson trauma pathway explorer(c)as a predictor for sepsis in polytrauma patients[J].J Clin Med,2021,10(23):5470

    • [29] QIAO Z,WANG W,YIN L,et al.Using IL ⁃6 concentra⁃ tions in the first 24 h following trauma to predict immuno⁃ logical complications and mortality in trauma patients:a meta ⁃ analysis[J].Eur J Trauma Emerg Surg,2018,44(5):679-687

    • [30] LI S,QIN Q,LUO D,et al.IL⁃17 is a potential biomarker for predicting the severity and outcomes of pulmonary contusion in trauma patients[J].Biomed Rep,2021,14(1):5

    • [31] SUNDNES O,OTTESTAD W,SCHJALM C,et al.Rapid systemic surge of IL⁃33 after severe human trauma:a pro⁃ spective observational study[J].Mol Med,2021,27(1):29

    • [32] ZADOROZNY E V,WEIGEL T,STONE A,et al.Prehos⁃ pital lactate is associated with the need for blood in trau⁃ ma[J].Prehosp Emerg Care,2022,26(4):590-599

    • [33] RICHARDS J E,MAZZEFFI M A,MASSEY M S,et al.The bitter and the sweet:relationship of lactate,glucose,and mortality after severe blunt trauma[J].Anesth Analg,2021,133(2):455-461

    • [34] HUH Y,KO Y,HWANG K,et al.Admission lactate and base deficit in predicting outcomes of pediatric trauma [J].Shock,2021,55(4):495-500

    • [35] DAVIS J W,DIRKS R C,KAUPS K L,et al.Base deficit is superior to lactate in trauma[J].Am J Surg,2018,215(4):682-685

    • [36] DECAVELE M,GAULT N,GAUSS T,et al.Cardiac tro⁃ ponin I as an early prognosis biomarker after trauma:a ret⁃ rospective cohort study[J].Br J Anaesth,2018,120(6):1158-1164

    • [37] BRAUN C K,SCHAFFER A,WEBER B,et al.The prog⁃ nostic value of troponin in pediatric polytrauma[J].Front Pediatr,2019,7:477

    • [38] KALBITZ M,SCHWARZ S,WEBER B,et al.Cardiac de⁃ pression in pigs after multiple trauma ⁃ characterization of posttraumatic structural and functional alterations[J].Sci Rep,2017,7(1):17861

    • [39] 张雅旋,郭瑞娟,张寅,等.外周血S100钙结合蛋白、 Hcy及神经元特异性烯醇化酶水平与创伤性颅脑损伤患者颅内血肿吸收情况及认知功能的相关性分析[J].南京医科大学学报(自然科学版),2022,42(10):1421-1425

    • [40] ROGOBETE A F,SANDESC D,BEDREAG O H,et al.MicroRNA expression is associated with sepsis disorders in critically ill polytrauma patients[J].Cells,2018,7(12):271

    • [41] ZHENG S,ZHANG W.Predictive values of sTREM ⁃ 1,PCT and CRP for multiple trauma⁃induced acute respira⁃ tory distress syndrome complicated with pulmonary infec⁃ tion[J/OL].Clin Lab,2022,68(12)[2022⁃12⁃01].DOI:10.7754/Clin.Lab.2022.211258

    • [42] FENG K,DAI W,LIU L,et al.Identification of biomark⁃ ers and the mechanisms of multiple trauma complicated with sepsis using metabolomics[J].Front Public Health,2022,10:923170