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通讯作者:

石中华,E-mail:jesse_1982@163.com

中图分类号:R714.256

文献标识码:A

文章编号:1007-4368(2024)04-505-06

DOI:10.7655/NYDXBNSN231017

参考文献 1
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参考文献 2
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参考文献 7
林宇,石中华.不同年龄段高龄孕妇妊娠风险的相关性分析[J].南京医科大学学报(自然科学版),2020,40(12):1824-1828
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参考文献 9
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参考文献 12
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参考文献 13
BANDRES⁃MERIZ J,DIEBERGER A M,HOCH D,et al.Maternal obesity affects the glucose ⁃ insulin axis during the first trimester of human pregnancy[J].Front Endocri⁃ nol,2020,11:566673
参考文献 14
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参考文献 15
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徐恒.孕前BMI、孕期体重增加及孕期血脂变化对妊娠期糖尿病围产结局的影响[D].浙江大学,2017
参考文献 17
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参考文献 18
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参考文献 19
ALBERICO S,MONTICO M,BARRESI V,et al.The role of gestational diabetes,pre ⁃ pregnancy body mass index and gestational weight gain on the risk of newborn macro⁃ somia:results from a prospective multicentre study[J].BMC Pregnancy Childbirth,2014,14:23
参考文献 20
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参考文献 22
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参考文献 23
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目录contents

    摘要

    目的:探讨正常孕前体重指数(body mass index,BMI)的妊娠期糖尿病(gestational diabetes mellitus,GDM)孕妇不同 BMI范围对妊娠结局的影响。方法:回顾性收集南京市妇幼保健院2022年5月—2023年5月孕前正常BMI的GDM孕妇2319例,按照孕前 BMI 分为 A 组(18.5 kg/m2 ≤BMI<20.0 kg/m2 ,581 例)、B 组(20.0 kg/m2 ≤BMI<22.0 kg/m2 ,922 例)与 C 组(22.0 kg/m2 ≤ BMI<24.0 kg/m2 ,816例)。拟合Logistic回归模型,对不同孕前BMI与妊娠结局的相关性进行分析评价。结果:3组GDM患者发生GDM A2级、子痫前期、巨大儿和新生儿高胆红素血症的风险随孕前BMI的升高而增加;发生胎盘早剥、新生儿低血糖症的风险随孕前BMI的升高而降低。在正常BMI人群中,GDM女性孕前较高或较低的BMI水平是发生GDM A2级、子痫前期、巨大儿、新生儿高胆红素血症、胎盘早剥和新生儿低血糖症的独立危险因素。结论:早期体重管理可能是预防GDM孕妇不良妊娠结局发生的不容忽视的关键措施之一。

    Abstract

    Objective:To explore the impact of different body mass index(BMI)ranges of gestational diabetes mellitus(GDM) pregnant women with normal pre-pregnancy BMI on pregnancy outcomes. Methods:A retrospective collection of 2,319 cases of GDM pregnant women with normal pre -pregnancy BMI from May 2022 to May 2023 at Nanjing Maternal and Child Health Hospital. They were divided into Group A(18.5 kg/m2 ≤BMI<20.0 kg/m2 ,581 cases),Group B(20.0 kg/m2 ≤BMI<22.0 kg/m2 ,922 cases),and Group C (22.0 kg/m2 ≤BMI<24.0 kg/m2 ,816 cases)according to pre-pregnancy BMI. Logistic regression was used to analyze and evaluate the association between different BMI levels and pregnancy outcomes. Results:The risk of GDM A2 level,preeclampsia,macrosomia,and neonatal hyperbilirubinemia in the three groups of GDM patients increased with the increase of pre - pregnancy BMI;the risk of placental abruption and neonatal hypoglycemia decreased with the increase of pre - pregnancy BMI. In the normal BMI population, higher or lower pre-pregnancy BMI levels in GDM women are independent risk factors for GDM A2 level,preeclampsia,macrosomia, neonatal hyperbilirubinemia,placental abruption,and neonatal hypoglycemia. Conclusion:Early weight management may be one of the key measures to prevent adverse pregnancy outcomes in GDM pregnant women.

  • 妊娠期糖尿病(gestational diabetes mellitus, GDM)是指孕期首次发生或发现的糖代谢异常,是最常见的妊娠并发症之一,目前全球发病率已攀升至18%,并且还在逐年上升[1]。GDM不仅与巨大儿、产后出血、新生儿低血糖、酮症酸中毒等母婴近期不良结局相关,而且增加了子代肥胖等远期代谢综合征的风险[2]。研究报道,孕前超重[体重指数(body mass index,BMI)≥24 kg/m2 ]、肥胖 (BMI≥28 kg/m2)均显著增加 GDM、妊娠期高血压、大于胎龄儿等不良结局发生的风险[3],其中,GDM 的发生风险较正常组增加2~5倍[4]。控制孕前BMI 可有效预防并改善孕产妇及新生儿不良结局。因此,加强孕前超重或肥胖女性的体重管理已引起社会的广泛关注。然而,孕前正常范围BMI的女性往往并未受到重视。孕前正常范围 BMI 是否与不良妊娠结局相关,其是否需要加强体重管理等科学问题尚未得到解答。因此,本研究以孕前正常BMI的 GDM孕妇为研究对象,进一步探讨孕前正常BMI与不良妊娠结局的相关性,为指导临床早期干预提供科学依据。

  • 1 对象和方法

  • 1.1 对象

  • 本研究纳入南京市妇幼保健院 2022 年 5 月— 2023 年 5 月孕前正常 BMI[5] 的 GDM 孕妇 2 319 例,分为 A 组(18.5 kg/m2 ≤BMI <20.0 kg/m2,581 例)、B 组(20.0 kg/m2 ≤BMI <22.0 kg/m2,922 例)与 C 组 (22.0 kg/m2 ≤BMI<24.0 kg/m2,816例)。回顾性分析 3组患者的人口学统计特征、实验室检测指标、孕产妇及新生儿结局等临床资料。排除标准:①多胎妊娠;②通过辅助生殖技术受孕;③死胎或死产;④孕前患有1型、2型糖尿病;⑤糖尿病合并妊娠;⑥临床资料部分缺失。所有临床资料和实验室指标均通过院内五级结构化电子病例系统数据检索获取,再经双人人工严格按照纳排标准核对。本研究已获南京市妇幼保健院伦理委员会批准(2022LSKY-024)。

  • 1.2 方法

  • 1.2.1 GDM诊断标准

  • 采用国际糖尿病合并妊娠研究组(International Association of Diabets and Pregnancy Study Group, IADPSG)标准进行诊断,即孕 24~28 周行 75 g 口服葡萄糖耐量试验(oral glucose tolerance test,OGTT),空腹血糖(fasting blood glucose,FPG)≥5.1 mmol/L,餐后1 h血糖≥10.0 mmol/L,餐后2 h血糖≥8.5 mmol/L,满足1项即可诊断[6]。对GDM孕妇孕期监测血糖并请本院营养科会诊进行饮食控制和运动指导。对于血糖控制不理想者使用胰岛素治疗。

  • 1.2.2 不良妊娠结局诊断标准

  • 不良妊娠结局包括早产、子痫前期、妊娠期肝内胆汁淤积症、巨大儿、绒毛膜羊膜炎、产后出血、前置胎盘、胎盘早剥、胎儿宫内窘迫、新生儿低血糖症、新生儿脑出血、新生儿感染、新生儿湿肺、新生儿高胆红素血症、新生儿ABO溶血性黄疸等。诊断标准均符合第9版《妇产科学》与《儿科学》。

  • 1.3 统计学方法

  • 采用 R 4.1.2 对数据进行统计学分析。分类变量以频数和百分比表示,采用卡方检验或Fisher确切概率法检验;连续型变量以均数±标准差(x-±s) 表示,采用单因素方差分析。3组间的线性趋势采用Linear⁃by⁃Linear⁃association 线性趋势检验进行分析。两两比较时用 Bonferroni 法校正 P 值。选用 Logistic回归检验GDM孕产妇孕前BMI水平与不良妊娠结局发生的相关性,模型1未调整协变量。既往研究表明随着孕产妇年龄的增加,不良妊娠结局的发生率更高[7]。产次对妊娠结局也有重要影响,特别是高龄初产妇发生GDM等不良妊娠结局的风险增加[8]。另外,选择在较早或较晚的孕周终止妊娠均会增加妊娠风险[9]。因此,本研究设置了模型 2,将年龄、初产妇及分娩孕周作为协变量纳入多因素回归分析。所有的统计检验均为双侧,P <0.05 为差异有统计学意义。

  • 2 结果

  • 2.1 孕产妇的一般临床资料比较

  • 3组孕产妇的年龄、地塞米松使用率、羊水量、产时出血量、产后24 h出血量和新生儿身长差异无统计学意义(P >0.05)。3组孕产妇的孕前BMI、孕周、OGTT、GDM A2级发生率、胰岛素使用率、降压药物使用率和新生儿体重均有显著差异(P <0.05)。其中,C组OGTT空腹血糖和GDM A2级发生率均高于另外两组(P <0.05),胰岛素使用率、降压药物使用率和新生儿体重均高于A组(P <0.05),但OGTT 餐后 1 h 和 2 h 血糖低于 A 组(P <0.05)。B 组的 OGTT 空腹血糖、GDM A2级发生率、胰岛素使用率和新生儿体重均高于A组(P <0.05),但OGTT餐后 2 h血糖低于A组(P <0.05,表1)。

  • 2.2 妊娠结局

  • 子痫前期和巨大儿的发生率随孕前 BMI 的升高而增加(P <0.05),胎盘早剥和新生儿低血糖症的发生率随孕前BMI的升高而降低(P <0.05)。两两比较发现,C组子痫前期(5.02% vs.1.89%)、巨大儿 (7.35% vs.3.10%)的发生率高于A组(P <0.05),新生儿高胆红素血症(5.15% vs.2.82%)的发生率高于 B 组(P <0.05)。其他妊娠结局两两比较差异无统计学意义(表2、3)。

  • 表1 各组患者一般资料比较

  • Table1 Comparison of general characteristics among among three groups

  • Compared with the group A,* P <0.05;compared with the group B,P <0.05.

  • 2.3 GDM孕产妇孕前BMI与不良妊娠结局的相关性

  • 将上述比较中差异有统计学意义的妊娠结局及药物使用纳入Logistic回归模型分析,在未调整协变量的模型1中,孕前BMI与胰岛素使用率、降压药物使用率、GDM A2级、子痫前期、巨大儿发生率均呈现显著正相关,与胎盘早剥、新生儿低血糖呈显著负相关;在调整协变量后的模型2中,所有结局均与孕前BMI存在相关性。具体OR值及95%置信区间见表4。

  • 3 讨论

  • 近年来,随着生活质量的提升以及饮食结构的改变,GDM的发病率不断上升,其对母婴健康结局的不良影响也日益凸显。GDM 孕产妇产后患 2 型糖尿病的风险明显增加,其子代在青少年时期也更易发生肥胖甚至糖尿病[10]。因此,控制GDM的发生发展,加强临床管理对预防和减少不良妊娠结局意义重大。

  • 表2 各组孕妇不良结局比较

  • Table2 Comparison of adverse pregnancy outcomes among three groups

  • Compared with the group A,# P <0.05. a:There is a positive linear trend relationship between pre⁃pregnancy BMI level of GDM pregnant women and maternal adverse outcomes,i.e.,the higher the pre⁃pregnancy BMI of GDM pregnant women,the greater the risk of pre⁃eclampsia occurrence. b:There is a negative linear trend relationship between pre⁃pregnancy BMI level of GDM pregnant women and maternal adverse outcomes,i.e.,the higher the pre⁃pregnancy BMI of GDM pregnant women,the smaller the risk of placental abruption occurrence.

  • 表3 各组新生儿不良结局比较

  • Table3 Comparison of neonatal adverse outcomes among three groups

  • Compared with the group A,# P <0.05;compared with the group B,P <0.05. a:There is a positive linear trend relationship between the pre⁃pregnancy BMI level of GDM mothers and adverse neonatal outcomes,i.e.,the higher the pre⁃pregnancy BMI of GDM mothers,the higher the risk of macrosomia occurrence. b:There is a negative linear trend relationship between the pre⁃pregnancy BMI level of GDM mothers and adverse maternal outcomes,i.e.,the higher the pre⁃pregnancy BMI of GDM mothers,the smaller the risk of neonatal hypoglycaemia occurrence.

  • 表4 妊娠不良结局及药物使用情况Logistic回归分析

  • Table4 Logistic regression analysis of adverse pregnancy outcomes and drug utilization

  • The model 2 was adjusted with the age of pregnant women,primipara and gestational week,while the model 1 was not adjusted.

  • 目前相关研究多数集中在孕前超重或肥胖的妇女发生不良结局的风险,对正常水平的孕前 BMI 与多种妊娠结局的相关性鲜有报道。著名的高血糖与不良妊娠结局研究证实,随妊娠女性血糖水平增高,主要不良结局发生率均增加,并且不良结局发生率的增加并非到了既往GDM诊断切点才开始,而是从最低的血糖水平持续性增加[11]。本课题组前期研究也发现,GDM正常范围内较高的糖化血红蛋白水平是早产、巨大儿和大于胎龄儿的独立危险因素[12]。以上这些研究结论颠覆了以往人们对于正常诊断界值的认知。因此,GDM女性正常孕前 BMI 是否与不良妊娠结局有显著的相关性引起了本课题组极大的兴趣。

  • 本研究将正常孕前BMI 的患者分为3组,深入探讨其发生GDM相关并发症的风险。结果显示,在正常范围内,随着孕前 BMI 水平的增加,孕产妇的 OGTT 空腹血糖水平显著升高,提示即使是正常孕前BMI的GDM孕产妇,其胰岛素敏感性降低,胰岛素抵抗发生,其程度随 BMI 的提高而增加[13]。但 OGTT餐后1 h和2 h的结果显示,相比另外两组,A组患者的血糖水平最高,即其糖耐量受损最为严重。一项日本研究发现,早期胰岛素分泌受损可能是低体重(BMI<18.5 kg/m2)女性 GDM 发生的原因[14]。因此,本研究推测 BMI(18.5~20.0 kg/m2)的 GDM患者,在已经存在胰岛素抵抗的情况下,其早期胰岛素分泌功能缺陷,外周组织对餐后血糖的利用减少,最终表现为OGTT餐后1 h和2 h水平较另外两组高。

  • 此外,本研究发现在正常范围内,随着GDM患者孕前BMI的增加,其GDM A2级、子痫前期、巨大儿和新生儿高胆红素血症发病率显著增加,胰岛素和降压药物的使用率也明显提高,而胎盘早剥和新生儿低血糖症的发生率明显降低。较高水平的BMI 与GDM A2级、子痫前期、巨大儿、新生儿高胆红素血症发生率及胰岛素和降压药物的使用率显著正相关,与胎盘早剥和新生儿低血糖症的发生率显著负相关。GDM患者由于高糖的刺激作用使得其微小血管管壁增厚、狭窄,引起血压增高[15]。相关研究表明,孕前BMI是GDM孕妇子痫前期的独立影响因素,GDM 孕产妇孕前BMI每增加1 kg/m2,子痫前期发生的风险增加1.52倍[16]。GDM A2级意味着孕期血糖控制不良,胰岛素的使用率也呈现增加趋势。研究显示,即使对超重或肥胖的GDM孕产妇使用药物治疗,将血糖水平维持在正常范围之内,其子代也可能发生过度生长[17]。而巨大儿分娩可能增加产妇的剖宫产率、产伤等风险,虽然没有显著的统计学差异,但本研究中产妇的产时及产后24 h 出血量也随着 BMI 的上升而出现增加趋势。我国华中地区的一项前瞻性研究显示,孕前超重或肥胖显著增加巨大儿新生儿的危险,并且是通过GDM而导致的[18]。另有一项在意大利进行的前瞻性研究也发现孕前肥胖是巨大儿发生的独立危险因素,但当孕前BMI在正常范围时(18.5~24.9 kg/m2)并未发现其与巨大儿有相关性[19]。这可能是由于研究者并未将 BMI 进行多分层的灵敏度分析而忽视了正常较高孕前BMI对巨大儿的作用。此外,较高的孕前 BMI 也与新生儿高胆红素血症的发生密切相关。既往研究表明,孕期肥胖与新生儿高胆红素血症有关,而 GDM 可通过孕期高糖刺激胎儿髓外造血,出生后增多的红细胞被破坏导致高胆红素血症的风险增高[20-21]。值得注意的是,胎盘早剥和新生儿低血糖症的发生率随着孕前BMI的升高而降低,且发生率与孕前BMI显著负相关。既往文献报道,体重过轻是胎盘早剥的危险因素之一[22]。新生儿低血糖好发于 GDM 产妇的子代,且与孕前肥胖正相关,但尚无针对低体重或正常体重孕妇的相关研究[23]。而在本研究中,GDM孕前BMI与新生儿低血糖症的发生呈负线性相关,推测除了GDM的不良影响之外,生产前长时间禁食或分娩过程中体力消耗可能是导致体重较轻产妇的新生儿更易发生低血糖症的原因之一。

  • 综上所述,即使女性孕前BMI在正常体重范围内,在较大或较小范围内的GDM患者不良妊娠结局的发生率更高。目前孕前保健指南中,针对超重或肥胖的高危孕产妇的营养管理及血糖管理模式已经较为完善。而作为群体数量最大的正常 BMI 女性的宣教和管理更加不容忽视。鉴于此,以社区为单位,为备孕中女性定期监测血糖波动、指导合理运动、推荐营养膳食等宣教管理对我国优生优育政策的顺利实施具有重要意义。

  • 参考文献

    • [1] 王姗姗,石中华.妊娠期糖尿病足月胎膜早破引产时机的探讨及其对母儿结局的影响[J].南京医科大学学报(自然科学版),2023,43(5):720-724

    • [2] JUAN J,YANG H X.Prevalence,prevention,and lifestyle intervention of gestational diabetes mellitus in China[J].Int J Environ Res Public Health,2020,17(24):9517

    • [3] SUN Y,SHEN Z Z,ZHAN Y L,et al.Effects of pre⁃preg⁃ nancy body mass index and gestational weight gain on ma⁃ ternal and infant complications[J].BMC Pregnancy Childbirth,2020,20(1):390

    • [4] KIM S Y,ENGLAND L,WILSON H G,et al.Percentage of gestational diabetes mellitus attributable to overweight and obesity[J].Am J Public Health,2010,100(6):1047-1052

    • [5] BAI K Z,CHEN X J,SHI Z,et al.Hypertension modifies the associations of body mass index and waist circumference with all⁃cause mortality among older Chinese:a retrospec⁃ tive cohort study[J].BMC Geriatr,2022,22(1):441

    • [6] WEINERT L S.International Association of Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Groups recommendations on the diagno⁃ sis and classification of hyperglycemia in pregnancy:com⁃ ment to the International Association of Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Groups Consensus Panel[J].Diabetes Care,2010,33(7):e97

    • [7] 林宇,石中华.不同年龄段高龄孕妇妊娠风险的相关性分析[J].南京医科大学学报(自然科学版),2020,40(12):1824-1828

    • [8] 曾金妹,陈日玲,何洁云,等.高龄初产妇妊娠并发症和不良妊娠结局分析[J].上海交通大学学报(医学版),2021,41(11):1485-1490

    • [9] 应群芳,周文超,厉云.妊娠期糖尿病终止妊娠的时机选择[J].浙江医学,2022,44(8):874-876

    • [10] YOU H X,HU J,LIU Y,et al.Risk of type 2 diabetes mel⁃ litus after gestational diabetes mellitus:a systematic review & meta ⁃ analysis[J].Indian J Med Res,2021,154(1):62-77

    • [11] METZGER B E,LOWE L P,DYER A R,et al.Hypergly⁃ cemia and adverse pregnancy outcomes[J].N Engl J Med,2008,358(19):1991-2002

    • [12] 肖江波,诸清逸,石中华.妊娠期糖尿病孕妇正常范围糖化血红蛋白与不良妊娠结局的相关性[J].现代妇产科进展,2022,31(4):265-268

    • [13] BANDRES⁃MERIZ J,DIEBERGER A M,HOCH D,et al.Maternal obesity affects the glucose ⁃ insulin axis during the first trimester of human pregnancy[J].Front Endocri⁃ nol,2020,11:566673

    • [14] KASUGA Y,MIYAKOSHI K,SAISHO Y,et al.Impaired early phase insulin secretion associated with gestational diabetes mellitus in underweight women[J].J Matern Fe⁃ tal Neonatal Med,2022,35(12):2411-2413

    • [15] YANG Y,WU N.Gestational diabetes mellitus and pre⁃ eclampsia:correlation and influencing factors[J].Front Cardiovasc Med,2022,9:831297

    • [16] 徐恒.孕前BMI、孕期体重增加及孕期血脂变化对妊娠期糖尿病围产结局的影响[D].浙江大学,2017

    • [17] LI M Y,HINKLE S N,GRANTZ K L,et al.Glycaemic status during pregnancy and longitudinal measures of fe⁃ tal growth in a multi⁃racial US population:a prospective cohort study[J].Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol,2020,8(4):292-300

    • [18] SONG X L,SHU J,ZHANG S M,et al.Pre ⁃ pregnancy body mass index and risk of macrosomia and large for ges⁃ tational age births with gestational diabetes mellitus as a mediator:a prospective cohort study in central China[J].Nutrients,2022,14(5):1072

    • [19] ALBERICO S,MONTICO M,BARRESI V,et al.The role of gestational diabetes,pre ⁃ pregnancy body mass index and gestational weight gain on the risk of newborn macro⁃ somia:results from a prospective multicentre study[J].BMC Pregnancy Childbirth,2014,14:23

    • [20] GENC M R,ONDERDONK A.Endogenous bacterial flo⁃ ra in pregnant women and the influence of maternal genet⁃ ic variation[J].BJOG,2011,118(2):154-163

    • [21] ROUGÉE L R,MIYAGI S J,COLLIER A C.Obstetric obesity is associated with neonatal hyperbilirubinemia with high prevalence in native hawaiians and Pacific Is⁃ land women[J].Hawaii J Med Public Health,2016,75(12):373-378

    • [22] DEUTSCH A B,LYNCH O,ALIO A P,et al.Increased risk of placental abruption in underweight women[J].Am J Perinatol,2010,27(3):235-240

    • [23] COLLINS K,OEHMEN R,MEHTA S.Effect of obesity on neonatal hypoglycaemia in mothers with gestational di⁃ abetes:a comparative study[J].Aust N Z J Obstet Gynae⁃ col,2018,58(3):291-297

  • 参考文献

    • [1] 王姗姗,石中华.妊娠期糖尿病足月胎膜早破引产时机的探讨及其对母儿结局的影响[J].南京医科大学学报(自然科学版),2023,43(5):720-724

    • [2] JUAN J,YANG H X.Prevalence,prevention,and lifestyle intervention of gestational diabetes mellitus in China[J].Int J Environ Res Public Health,2020,17(24):9517

    • [3] SUN Y,SHEN Z Z,ZHAN Y L,et al.Effects of pre⁃preg⁃ nancy body mass index and gestational weight gain on ma⁃ ternal and infant complications[J].BMC Pregnancy Childbirth,2020,20(1):390

    • [4] KIM S Y,ENGLAND L,WILSON H G,et al.Percentage of gestational diabetes mellitus attributable to overweight and obesity[J].Am J Public Health,2010,100(6):1047-1052

    • [5] BAI K Z,CHEN X J,SHI Z,et al.Hypertension modifies the associations of body mass index and waist circumference with all⁃cause mortality among older Chinese:a retrospec⁃ tive cohort study[J].BMC Geriatr,2022,22(1):441

    • [6] WEINERT L S.International Association of Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Groups recommendations on the diagno⁃ sis and classification of hyperglycemia in pregnancy:com⁃ ment to the International Association of Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Groups Consensus Panel[J].Diabetes Care,2010,33(7):e97

    • [7] 林宇,石中华.不同年龄段高龄孕妇妊娠风险的相关性分析[J].南京医科大学学报(自然科学版),2020,40(12):1824-1828

    • [8] 曾金妹,陈日玲,何洁云,等.高龄初产妇妊娠并发症和不良妊娠结局分析[J].上海交通大学学报(医学版),2021,41(11):1485-1490

    • [9] 应群芳,周文超,厉云.妊娠期糖尿病终止妊娠的时机选择[J].浙江医学,2022,44(8):874-876

    • [10] YOU H X,HU J,LIU Y,et al.Risk of type 2 diabetes mel⁃ litus after gestational diabetes mellitus:a systematic review & meta ⁃ analysis[J].Indian J Med Res,2021,154(1):62-77

    • [11] METZGER B E,LOWE L P,DYER A R,et al.Hypergly⁃ cemia and adverse pregnancy outcomes[J].N Engl J Med,2008,358(19):1991-2002

    • [12] 肖江波,诸清逸,石中华.妊娠期糖尿病孕妇正常范围糖化血红蛋白与不良妊娠结局的相关性[J].现代妇产科进展,2022,31(4):265-268

    • [13] BANDRES⁃MERIZ J,DIEBERGER A M,HOCH D,et al.Maternal obesity affects the glucose ⁃ insulin axis during the first trimester of human pregnancy[J].Front Endocri⁃ nol,2020,11:566673

    • [14] KASUGA Y,MIYAKOSHI K,SAISHO Y,et al.Impaired early phase insulin secretion associated with gestational diabetes mellitus in underweight women[J].J Matern Fe⁃ tal Neonatal Med,2022,35(12):2411-2413

    • [15] YANG Y,WU N.Gestational diabetes mellitus and pre⁃ eclampsia:correlation and influencing factors[J].Front Cardiovasc Med,2022,9:831297

    • [16] 徐恒.孕前BMI、孕期体重增加及孕期血脂变化对妊娠期糖尿病围产结局的影响[D].浙江大学,2017

    • [17] LI M Y,HINKLE S N,GRANTZ K L,et al.Glycaemic status during pregnancy and longitudinal measures of fe⁃ tal growth in a multi⁃racial US population:a prospective cohort study[J].Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol,2020,8(4):292-300

    • [18] SONG X L,SHU J,ZHANG S M,et al.Pre ⁃ pregnancy body mass index and risk of macrosomia and large for ges⁃ tational age births with gestational diabetes mellitus as a mediator:a prospective cohort study in central China[J].Nutrients,2022,14(5):1072

    • [19] ALBERICO S,MONTICO M,BARRESI V,et al.The role of gestational diabetes,pre ⁃ pregnancy body mass index and gestational weight gain on the risk of newborn macro⁃ somia:results from a prospective multicentre study[J].BMC Pregnancy Childbirth,2014,14:23

    • [20] GENC M R,ONDERDONK A.Endogenous bacterial flo⁃ ra in pregnant women and the influence of maternal genet⁃ ic variation[J].BJOG,2011,118(2):154-163

    • [21] ROUGÉE L R,MIYAGI S J,COLLIER A C.Obstetric obesity is associated with neonatal hyperbilirubinemia with high prevalence in native hawaiians and Pacific Is⁃ land women[J].Hawaii J Med Public Health,2016,75(12):373-378

    • [22] DEUTSCH A B,LYNCH O,ALIO A P,et al.Increased risk of placental abruption in underweight women[J].Am J Perinatol,2010,27(3):235-240

    • [23] COLLINS K,OEHMEN R,MEHTA S.Effect of obesity on neonatal hypoglycaemia in mothers with gestational di⁃ abetes:a comparative study[J].Aust N Z J Obstet Gynae⁃ col,2018,58(3):291-297