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通讯作者:

王小姗,E-mail: xiaoshanwang1971@163.com

中图分类号:R742.1

文献标识码:A

文章编号:1007-4368(2024)09-1298-07

DOI:10.7655/NYDXBNSN230588

参考文献 1
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参考文献 19
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参考文献 20
JENTINK J,LOANE M A,DOLK H,et al.Valproic acid monotherapy in pregnancy and major congenital malformations[J].N Engl J Med,2010,362(23):2185-2193
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参考文献 22
DESHMUKH U,ADAMS J,MACKLIN E A,et al.Beha⁃vioraloutcomesinchildrenexposedprenatallytolamotrigine,valproate,or carbamazepine[J].Neurotoxicol Teratol,2016,54:5-14
参考文献 23
RANJITH S,JOSHI A.Measures to mitigate sodium valproate use in pregnant women with epilepsy[J].Cureus,2022,14(10):e30144
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TOMSON T,BATTINO D,PERUCCA E.Teratogenicity of antiepileptic drugs[J].Curr Opin Neurol,2019,32(2):246-252
参考文献 25
LV H Q,ZHAO X Y,YU J.Analysis of the clinical effects of sodium valproate and levetiracetam in the treatment of women with epilepsy during pregnancy[J].Evid Based Complement Alternat Med,2021,2021:5962200
参考文献 26
LÓPEZ⁃ESCOBAR B,FERNÁNDEZ⁃TORRES R,VAR⁃GAS⁃LÓPEZ V,et al.Lacosamide intake during pregnancy increases the incidence of foetal malformations and symptoms associated with schizophrenia in the offspring of mice[J].Sci Rep,2020,10(1):7615
参考文献 27
ZUTSHI D,MILLIS S R,BASHA M M,et al.Lacosamide serum concentrations during pregnancy[J].Epilepsy Behav,2021,123:108253
参考文献 28
MCCLUSKEY G,KINNEY M O,RUSSELL A,et al.Zonisamide safety in pregnancy:data from the UK and Ireland epilepsy and pregnancy register[J].Seizure,2021,91:311-315
参考文献 29
NUCERA B,BRIGO F,TRINKA E,et al.Treatment and care of women with epilepsy before,during,and after pregnancy:a practical guide[J].Ther Adv Neurol Disord,2022,15:17562864221101687
参考文献 30
BIRNBAUM A K,MEADOR K J,KARANAM A,et al.Antiepileptic drug exposure in infants of breastfeeding mothers with epilepsy[J].JAMA Neurol,2020,77(4):441-450
参考文献 31
JIMÉNEZ M,GRAU ⁃LÓPEZ L,CIURANS J,et al.Epilepsy and pregnancy.Factors associated with epileptic seizures during pregnancy[J].Neurologia,2023,38(2):106-113
参考文献 32
LOGUE T C,HUANG Y,BENSON R J,et al.Use of antiepileptic drugs by trimester[J].J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med,2022,35(25):10158-10161
参考文献 33
MOSTACCI B,TROISI S,BISULLI F,et al.Seizure worsening in pregnancy in women with sleep⁃related hypermotor epilepsy(SHE):a historical cohort study[J].Seizure,2021,91:258-262
参考文献 34
PENNELL P B,KARANAM A,MEADOR K J,et al.Antiseizure medication concentrations during pregnancy:results from the maternal outcomes and neurodevelopmental effects of antiepileptic drugs(MONEAD)study[J].JAMA Neurol,2022,79(4):370-379
参考文献 35
GALAPPATTHY P,LIYANAGE C K,LUCAS M N,et al.Obstetric outcomes and effects on babies born to women treated for epilepsy during pregnancy in a resource limited setting:a comparative cohort study[J].BMC Pregnancy Childbirth,2018,18(1):230
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MEADOR K J,COHEN M J,LORING D W,et al.Two-year⁃old cognitive outcomes in children of pregnant women with epilepsy in the maternal outcomes and neurodevelop⁃mental effects of antiepileptic drugs study[J].JAMA Neurol,2021,78(8):927-936
参考文献 37
ALVESTAD S,HUSEBYE E S N,CHRISTENSEN J,et al.Folic acid and risk of preterm birth,preeclampsia,and fetal growth restriction among women with epilepsy:a prospective cohort study[J].Neurology,2022,99(6):e605-e615
参考文献 38
ASADI ⁃POOYA A A.High dose folic acid supplementation in women with epilepsy:are we sure it is safe?[J].Seizure,2015,27:51-53
参考文献 39
TOMSON T,LANDMARK C J,BATTINO D.Antiepileptic drug treatment in pregnancy:changes in drug disposition and their clinical implications[J].Epilepsia,2013,54(3):405-414
参考文献 40
TOMSON T,BATTINO D.Pharmacokinetics and therapeutic drug monitoring of newer antiepileptic drugs during pregnancy and the puerperium[J].Clin Pharmaco⁃kinet,2007,46(3):209-219
参考文献 41
TOMSON T,PALM R,KÄLLÉN K,et al.Pharmacokinetics of levetiracetam during pregnancy,delivery,in the neonatal period,and lactation[J].Epilepsia,2007,48(6):1111-1116
参考文献 42
CHRISTENSEN J,SABERS A,SIDENIUS P.Oxcarbaze⁃pine concentrations during pregnancy:a retrospective study in patients with epilepsy[J].Neurology,2006,67(8):1497-1499
参考文献 43
MAZZUCCHELLI I,ONAT F Y,OZKARA C,et al.Changes in the disposition of oxcarbazepine and its metabolites during pregnancy and the puerperium[J].Epilepsia,2006,47(3):504-509
参考文献 44
OMTZIGT J G,NAU H,LOS F J,et al.The disposition of valproate and its metabolites in the late first trimester and early second trimester of pregnancy in maternal serum,urine,and amniotic fluid:effect of dose,co-medication,and the presence of spina bifida[J].Eur J Clin Pharmacol,1992,43(4):381-388
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TOPRANI S,MEADOR K J,ROBALINO C P,et al.The effect of epilepsy on sleep quality during pregnancy and postpartum[J].Neurology,2022,99(15):e1584-e1597
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参考文献 47
JACKSON A,BROMLEY R,MORROW J,et al.In utero exposure to valproate increases the risk of isolated cleft palate[J].Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed,2016,101(3):F207-F211
目录contents

    摘要

    癫痫是脑部神经元同步异常放电导致的一种脑功能障碍,是常见的神经系统疾病之一,患者需长期规律服用抗癫痫药物控制发作。对于妊娠妇女,抗癫痫药物可不同程度地通过胎盘屏障进入胎儿体内,对其产生不良风险。拉莫三嗪和左乙拉西坦潜在致畸风险最低,奥卡西平致畸风险较低,而托吡酯致畸风险较高,丙戊酸的致畸作用及对宫内暴露儿童神经心理发育的负面影响较大,应尽可能避免使用。目前抗癫痫药物的用药管理仍是一个临床难题,良好的孕前准备和孕期抗癫痫药物的合理决策至关重要。

    Abstract

    Epilepsy is a kind of brain dysfunction caused by abnormal synchronous discharge of brain neurons,and is one of the common diseases of the nervous system. Patients need to take anti-epileptic drugs regularly for a long time to achieve seizures-free. For pregnant women,antiepileptic drugs can enter the fetus through the placental barrier causing adverse effects. Lamotrigine and levetiracetam have the lowest potential teratogenic risk,oxcarbazepine has a low risk,topiramate has high risk,while valproic acid has the most severe teratogenic effect and negative effects on the neuropsychological development of children exposed in utero,and should be avoided as far as possible. At present,the management of antiepileptic drugs is still a difficult clinical problem. Pre-pregnancy preparation and rational decision-making of antiepileptic drugs usage during pregnancy are very important.

  • 癫痫是神经系统最常见的疾病之一,全世界大约有1 500万患者[1],女性癫痫发病率为57.43/10万[2],而育龄妇女癫痫患者是其中的一个特殊群体(约占所有育龄妇女的0.3%~0.7%)[3],也是妊娠期间最常见的需要持续治疗的神经系统疾病。她们有很多的特殊需求,包括减少抗癫痫药物(anti ⁃epilepsy drug,AED)的致畸风险、妊娠期癫痫控制、妊娠期 AED血清水平变化及其在妊娠期间的调整、补充叶酸及其他微量元素等。癫痫控制良好,对子代没有不可控的不良事件发生是妊娠期抗癫痫治疗的主要目标。妊娠期间癫痫发作对母亲和胎儿都有危险,可导致产妇缺氧、抽搐性酸中毒、胎儿窒息等,强直⁃阵挛性发作是癫痫猝死和癫痫相关损伤发生风险最高的癫痫类型。然而,虽然癫痫发作可能会有直接和长期影响子代的风险,但是暴露于AED会增加先天性畸形的风险[24]。先前的研究显示,宫内暴露AED的患者后代发生畸形的风险为3.1%~9.0%,比普通人高2~3倍[5]。其中,约37%的人患有2种轻度畸形,11%的人患有1种轻度畸形[5]。AED多药治疗的致畸风险(致畸率8.6%)比单药治疗(致畸率4.5%)更高[6-7]。然而,在综合治疗中,AED的类型比数量更重要。例如,丙戊酸(valproic acid,VPA)不仅与单药治疗中较高的致畸遗传风险相关,也是多药治疗中产生妊娠不良后果的主要因素[8-9],包括对子代神经认知功能的负面影响。一项对出生在日本、意大利和加拿大的983名婴儿的前瞻性分析显示,妊娠期暴露于 VPA单药治疗的子代,先天性畸形风险为11.1%,暴露于苯妥英的先天性畸形风险为9.1%,而未暴露于AED 子代的先天性畸形风险为3.1%[10]

  • 如何对妊娠期癫痫患者进行最佳管理是一个世界性临床难题,妊娠期癫痫的治疗必须平衡胎儿 AED暴露的风险和癫痫发作带来的危害,建议能够测量孕前AED血药浓度水平(在早晨给药之前)作为参考,更好地指导未来妊娠期间的药物剂量调整。医生应将这些问题与潜在的癫痫综合征综合评估,并在与患者进行充分沟通后选择合适的 AED。本文综述了近年来有关宫内暴露 AED 的相关研究,希望给予临床工作者一些参考。

  • 1 常见AED对子代的影响

  • 对于产前暴露于AED对子代长期发育的影响,人们所知甚少。大量的动物研究表明,产前暴露于 AED 可导致发育迟缓,而在人体研究中则结果不一。一些实验研究表明,暴露于苯妥英的儿童运动功能受损。芬兰对于AED 宫内暴露队列的随访结果表明存在婴儿发育障碍的风险[11]。对出生前暴露于AED环境中的年龄较大的儿童的研究表明,他们的智力、认知水平和学习能力较低[11]。神经发育问题的确切发病机制尚不清楚,AED与胎儿发育的致畸风险相关,主要先天畸形的患病率也因治疗类型和剂量的不同而不同[4]。此外,可能影响子代神经认知发育的因素还包括孕产妇癫痫综合征、妊娠期癫痫发作、叶酸和其他营养缺乏状态、产妇智商和儿童成长的社会环境等。其次,由于设计不良、样本量小以及方法缺乏一致性,大多数研究未能提供结论性结果或出现了相互矛盾的结果。下面介绍几种目前临床常用AED(表1)。

  • 1.1 托吡酯(topiramate,TPM)

  • TPM 增加 γ ⁃ 氨基丁酸(γ ⁃ aminobutyric acid, GABA),进一步激活GABAA受体,加强氯离子内流及抑制性中枢神经递质作用,降低AMPA型谷氨酸受体活性及兴奋性中枢神经递质作用。临床用于难治性部分性发作、继发性全面强直阵挛发作 (generalized tonic ⁃clonic seizure,GTCS)的附加或单药治疗,对Lennox⁃Gastaut综合征和婴儿痉挛症也有效。动物研究表明,TPM 可能有致畸性,目前机制尚不清楚。TPM 的致畸率为 4.2%~4.8%[12-13],暴露于TPM的子代有明显的神经发育不良风险,尤其是每天服用 100 mg 或更高剂量时,会显著增加口面部、心脏和泌尿生殖系统的畸形风险,美国食品药品监督管理局现已将TPM从妊娠C类药物改为妊娠 D类药物,并警告孕妇服用TPM可能对子代造成伤害[14],产前服用 TPM 与早产的风险增加也有关[1]。宫内暴露TPM影响子代行为/神经发育的证据有限,一项关于宫内暴露TPM与健康对照组的研究表明, TPM 可能导致子代发育迟缓,因此,不仅要关注药物暴露的直接影响,而且要跟踪这些子代后期的发育情况,TPM暴露可能在运动、认知、执行功能和行为等的发展方面对子代产生影响[15]。最近北欧一项人口保健记录研究提示,TPM与自闭症谱系障碍的风险增加也有关[16]

  • 1.2 拉莫三嗪(lamotrigine,LTG)

  • LTG通过抑制神经元膜电压依赖性钠通道,稳定突触前膜,减少兴奋性递质谷氨酸及门冬氨酸释放,抑制痫样放电扩散发挥作用。临床用于部分性发作和GTCS的附加或单药治疗,以及Lennox⁃Gastaut 综合征、失神发作和肌阵挛发作的治疗。研究表明,LTG 致畸率为 2.0%~3.7%[12-13]。在宫内长期暴露于 LTG 的子代与健康对照组相比并没有明显的低智商或特殊的语言、非语言或空间能力障碍[10]。 LTG对神经发育没有明显负面影响,但在确认LTG 对孕妇完全“安全”之前,建议对大量儿童进行更长期的随访。

  • 1.3 奥卡西平(oxcarbazepine,OXC)

  • OXC 是卡马西平 10⁃酮基衍化物,通过阻断电压依赖性钠通道,抑制神经元的钠依赖性动作电位持续高频放电发挥作用,肝酶诱导作用小。临床用于部分性发作、GTCS单药治疗,部分性癫痫的附加治疗,对某些难治性癫痫有效。OXC 致畸率约为 3%[17]。目前对暴露于OXC的研究相对较少。

  • 1.4 左乙拉西坦(levetriacetam,LEV)

  • LEV作用机制不明,可能特异性结合突触小泡蛋白 SV2A。临床用于部分性发作单药治疗,各类全面性发作或分类不确定时的用药,对失神发作、新生儿癫痫、青少年肌阵挛性癫痫有明显疗效[18]。 LEV 致畸率为 0.7%~2.4%[12-13]。目前的研究表明,宫内暴露于 LEV 的儿童在语言和运动发育方面要优于暴露于丙戊酸的儿童[19]。暴露于 LTG 和 LEV 的儿童,无论是单药治疗还是双药治疗,患神经发育障碍的风险与未暴露的儿童相似[18]。尽管 LEV 在妊娠期广泛使用,但关于LEV单药治疗和LTG联合LEV双药治疗的安全性数据很少。

  • 1.5 VPA

  • VPA抑制电压敏感性钠通道,增强GABA介导的抑制作用,是广谱 AED。VPA 与睾酮水平升高、体重增加、多囊卵巢综合征及非酒精性脂肪肝有关。此外,其可增加性激素结合蛋白的表达,导致雌激素水平降低。研究表明,VPA 的致畸率为 6.2%~20.3%[520],是未接触AED者的7.3倍,是暴露于其他 AED 者的 4 倍。在宫内暴露于 VPA 的子代认知功能受损的风险多出现在3岁[5],6岁时可能出现多领域认知能力降低[21]。此外,宫内暴露于VPA 会增加语言障碍和智商下降的风险,通常表现为自闭症相关的症状[22],与暴露于其他AED或未暴露的对照组儿童相比,暴露于VPA可能增加患自闭症谱系障碍的风险[23-24]。同时,宫内暴露VPA与社交和运动方面的适应性行为障碍有关,沟通能力相对较弱,且VPA剂量增加与子代后期适应能力的下降呈线性相关[22]。胎儿丙戊酸综合征(fetal valproic acid syndrome,FVS)表现出许多宫内暴露于VPA子代的一些共同改变,其特征为畸形和神经发育问题,以及特殊的面部异常类型。在FVS中更常见的先天性异常包括神经管缺损、小头畸形和心脏缺损。VPA 的剂量依赖效应已被证实[25],每日暴露超过1 000 mg VPA的先天性畸形风险更大,有关认知障碍的风险亦随着剂量的增加而增加。

  • 1.6 其他

  • 一些较新的 AED,包括普瑞巴林、呲仑帕奈、布瓦西坦、拉考沙胺、唑尼沙胺等,其致畸性的临床数据有限。动物实验发现,同等于人类治疗剂量的普瑞巴林用于大鼠,产生了发育畸形;临床小规模研究数据提示妊娠前 3 个月接触普瑞巴林会增加重大先天畸形(major congenital malformation,MCM) 的风险[2]。临床前试验研究表明,拉考沙胺也可能具有致畸潜能,并存在剂量依赖性[26]。然而,一项对 7例妊娠期癫痫患者拉考沙胺血清浓度的研究显示,这些母亲所生的子代没有MCM[27]。来自英国和爱尔兰的妊娠患者数据显示,唑尼沙胺单药治疗组的 MCM 风险为 13.0%,而多药治疗组的 MCM 风险为 6.9%[28]。布瓦西坦于2016年获批,对妊娠大鼠不产生胚胎⁃胎儿毒性和致畸性;然而,在妊娠的家兔中,相同的母体剂量下观察到胚胎毒性[2]。应该注意的是,不同物种的酶系统不同,在解释临床前动物物种的致畸性数据时,应考虑动物模型的差异。

  • 表1 AED、MCM的风险、妊娠期AED推荐、妊娠AED血清水平的变化和母乳喂养安全等级

  • Table1 AED,the risk of MCM,recommended AED in pregnancy,changes in serum levels of AED during pregnancy,and breast feeding safety level

  • 2 妊娠期癫痫患者的管理

  • 育龄妇女在选择 AED 时必须考虑到母亲和胎儿的健康。目前,临床上常见的治疗方案是在怀孕期间继续应用尽可能低剂量的 AED,在可能的情况下首选具有低致畸风险的单药治疗,如 LTG 或 LEV[31-32]。妊娠期暴露于 LTG 和 LEV 的子代发生 MCM的风险与未暴露于AED的子代相似[2]。癫痫患者在怀孕期间出现癫痫发作的可能性很高,因此,癫痫发作控制良好的患者最好不要暂停治疗[3133]。控制癫痫发作对胎儿很重要,但潜在的致畸性也需纳入考量,所以,当最低致畸率的AED对母亲的癫痫控制效果较差时,增加剂量或采用其他AED的决定是具有挑战性的。

  • 许多癫痫患者在备孕期间考虑停止治疗以避免对胎儿的不利影响。孕妇癫痫综合征或孕期癫痫发作并不会直接致使婴儿发育障碍,但如果AED 完全停止,一些患者,特别是青少年肌阵挛性癫痫患者复发的风险很高。与全身性癫痫患者相比,局灶性癫痫患者在妊娠期间癫痫发作恶化的可能性更高,尤其是额叶癫痫;此外,接受多药治疗或孕前未达到临床治愈标准的患者在妊娠期发生癫痫发作恶化可能性也更高[3134]。接受多药治疗的患者子代发育明显落后于接受单药治疗的患者子代,当妊娠期癫痫患者从多药治疗转向单一治疗时,子代发育迟缓的风险会大大降低。多元回归分析结果表明,多药联合治疗对婴儿发育的不利影响要大于剂量增加所产生的影响。相关研究表明,低剂量单药治疗导致的风险并不显著高于无AED 的风险。因此,在孕前和怀孕期间,使用单一治疗和坚持较低的药物剂量对降低宫内暴露子代发育障碍的风险很重要[35]

  • 一些患有癫痫的女性可能需要在妊娠期进行多药治疗或增加剂量以保持对癫痫发作的充分控制。在多药联合治疗时,应尽量避免涉及VPA的联合用药[23]。当VPA剂量超过600 mg/d时,致畸风险显著增加[35],观察到的最大可归因风险是每天服用 1 500 mg以上[8],故妊娠前必须调整AED治疗,以减少可能的致畸风险。VPA 对全身性癫痫发作控制较好,但由于其致畸作用和对宫内暴露子代神经心理发育的负面影响,应尽可能避免使用。然而,一些孕前仅用VPA控制癫痫或应用其他AED无法控制癫痫发作的妇女需在咨询后作出决定。应告知患者在孕期继续服用 VPA 可能出现的影响,让患者全面平衡利弊后慎重作出决定。另外,增加叶酸可降低 MCM 的风险[36],美国妇产科医生推荐妊娠癫痫患者每日叶酸剂量为 4 mg,欧洲的指南一致建议使用高剂量(5 mg)叶酸进行孕前预防,妊娠癫痫患者中高叶酸摄入者(5.0~5.4 mg)比低叶酸摄入者(0.3~0.5 mg)的流产率更低[2937]。然而,有动物研究表明补充高剂量叶酸可能会损害大脑发育,干扰神经元连接,导致神经网络过度兴奋[38]。因此没有足够的证据来回答最佳剂量问题,也不清楚更高剂量的叶酸是否能提供更好的保护,通常认为每天 0.4 mg已是足够的剂量。

  • 妊娠期 AED 浓度低于孕前基线的 65%可显著增加癫痫发作的风险[34];与此同时,妊娠期可改变AED的药代动力学,这可能与吸收改变、血液稀释、清除率升高、代谢升高和蛋白结合等有关[234]。研究显示,TPM血清水平在妊娠晚期下降30%~40%[39]。LTG及其代谢物的血清浓度在妊娠期间下降50%~70%[29]。一项前瞻性、观察性队列研究的数据显示,接受单药治疗或与无相互作用药物联合治疗的患者,妊娠期 LTG 血清浓度下降 56.1%[34]。LTG 血清浓度在分娩后的第1天就开始迅速恢复,通常在 2~3 周内达到孕前水平[39]。LEV 血清浓度在妊娠期下降40%~60%[40-41]。药代动力学研究显示,妊娠期间OXC 主要代谢物的血清浓度与妊娠前或妊娠后相比降低了36%[42-43],血药浓度从妊娠早期开始下降,20周后达到最低[40],分娩后4~8周内血清浓度恢复到基线水平[43]。VPA 在妊娠后期总血清浓度下降高达40%,非结合血清浓度无明显变化[44]。建议从妊娠试验阳性开始,在妊娠期间定期(如每月) 测量AED血清水平[39],以更好地指导用药,避免过量服用AED。另外,癫痫患者母乳喂养子代的AED 暴露研究表明,与服用AED治疗的母亲相比,子代的AED药物暴露率较低,母亲服用AED时母乳喂养对子代神经发育没有不良影响[30],支持癫痫患者服用AED后母乳喂养。

  • 同时,癫痫也会影响睡眠结构,妊娠期癫痫患者的睡眠质量明显低于健康孕妇[45],这也可增加癫痫发作频率,导致癫痫控制不佳。在妊娠期和产后进行连续的血清AED水平监测,有助于进行适当的药物剂量调整,用最低所需剂量控制癫痫发作[34]

  • 宫内暴露于AED的婴儿比未暴露于AED的婴儿体重、身高更低,枕额径更小,身体发育减缓[46],可能是低出生体重和宫内生长限制的风险因素[35]。大多数患有癫痫的孕妇可通过阴道分娩。孤立腭裂是主要见于产前VPA暴露的腭裂类型,如暴露于 VPA,建议婴儿在分娩后进行颅内压检查[47]。此外,需要对孕产妇进行更大规模的长期随访研究,以确定宫内和产后暴露于AED 的婴儿生长发育迟缓的原因。

  • 目前还没有关于围产期维生素K预防的一般建议。在怀孕期间,大多数AED(如LTG、OXC和LEV) 应用时需要增加维生素K以弥补血清水平的下降, VPA 和卡马西平除外。单药治疗中的许多AED 对母乳喂养是安全的,应该鼓励妇女母乳喂养。

  • 3 总结与展望

  • 在过去的二十年里,全球癫痫患者使用的AED 种类大幅增加。随着人们对癫痫疾病的认识水平提高、重视程度增加,以及对生活质量的要求提升,越来越多的研究开始关注妊娠期暴露于AED 对子代的影响。对于女性癫痫患者,备孕时机最好选择在癫痫临床治愈并停用AED之后,如果选择带药怀孕,则需提前咨询医生进行AED的调整,并尽早补充叶酸以尽可能降低AED 可能对子代带来的不良风险。

  • 目前大多数研究都集中在先天畸形上,现在已经明确的是,宫内暴露AED会限制子代生长发育,并有造成后期认知障碍和行为异常的可能性。这意味着AED 对子代的影响不局限于胎儿期的器官形成,而将贯穿后期整个大脑发育成熟的过程。在怀孕期间,AED 对胎儿不良反应的风险差别很大。对于一些 AED,其不良风险与使用剂量有关,所以建议 AED 首选低剂量单药治疗。此外,研究提示 VPA引起先天畸形、后期认知和行为异常的风险最大,这些发现可指导女性癫痫患者的 AED 用药方案,尽量避免和减少育龄期女性VPA 的使用,以降低对子代的不良风险。与此同时,医生应重视并跟踪这些儿童发展的后期阶段,并为之提供相应解决方案。目前,宫内暴露AED对于子代的影响还需要更大的样本量以及长期的随访进一步研究,以便为医生和女性癫痫患者提供相关证据来做出更合理的用药决策。

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