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通讯作者:

唐立钧,E-mail: tanglijun@njmu.edu.cn

中图分类号:R814.42

文献标识码:A

文章编号:1007-4368(2024)12-1755-08

DOI:10.7655/NYDXBNSN240732

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目录contents

    摘要

    正电子发射断层显像(positron emission tomography,PET)在心脏疾病的诊断与治疗中发挥着重要作用。通过使用特定的示踪剂,心脏PET成像能够展示心肌细胞的血流灌注、代谢活动和炎症反应等病理生理过程,被广泛应用于冠状动脉疾病、心脏结节病、心脏淀粉样变性、心力衰竭等心脏疾病的诊断与治疗,并在评估心肌纤维化方面具有重要作用。文章综述了心脏PET成像的基本原理、主要示踪剂种类及其在心脏疾病中的相关应用。

    Abstract

    Positron emission tomography(PET)plays an important role in the diagnosis and treatment of heart diseases. Using specific tracers,cardiac PET imaging can reveal various pathophysiological processes such as myocardial blood flow perfusion, metabolic activity,and inflammatory responses. It is widely used in the diagnosis and treatment of coronary artery disease,cardiac sarcoidosis,cardiac amyloidosis,heart failure,and is paticularly important in assessing myocardial fibrosis. This article reviews the basic principles of cardiac PET imaging,the main types of tracers,and their applications in heart disease.

  • 心脏疾病始终是全球公共卫生领域的一大挑战。随着医学影像技术的飞速发展,心脏正电子发射断层显像(positron emission tomography,PET)已成为评估心脏疾病的重要工具。与传统的心血管成像技术如超声心动图、计算机断层成像(computed tomography,CT)和磁共振成像(magnetic resonance imaging,MRI)相比,PET成像具有揭示心脏生理功能的独到之处。PET能够使用特定示踪剂来展示心肌细胞的血流灌注、代谢活动和炎症反应等病理生理过程。在评估心肌灌注和心肌细胞活力方面, PET成像具有明显的优势,并被认为是无创评估冠状动脉血流储备的金标准[1]。与单光子发射断层显像(single-photon emission computed tomography, SPECT)相比,PET 成像有着更好的图像质量和更优的空间分辨率[2]。此外,PET与CT或MRI的结合使用,可以提供包括形态学和生理学在内的综合信息。随着技术的持续进步和应用的不断深化,心脏 PET成像在心脏疾病的诊断、治疗和预后评估中显示出了独特的价值。本文将概述心脏 PET 成像的相关示踪剂及其主要的临床应用。

  • 1 PET成像原理

  • PET是一种先进的非侵入性核医学成像技术,利用正电子放射性核素及其标记的化合物(即示踪剂)获取人体内部组织和细胞的功能信息。这些示踪剂可特异性结合目标生物分子或参与体内代谢过程,从而实现在靶器官或病灶中的积聚。当示踪剂衰变时,释放的正电子与周围的电子相互作用,发生湮灭反应,产生 2 个能量相等(511 keV)、方向相反的γ光子。γ光子穿过生物体后被体外的PET探测器捕捉,并通过计算机重建算法得到示踪剂的断层分布图像,从而提供详细的功能性成像信息[3]。一体化设备PET/CT或PET/MR的引入,实现了功能成像与解剖成像的精准融合,扩展了 PET 的应用范围,为疾病诊断提供更加可靠的依据。

  • 2 PET显像剂

  • 2.1 心肌灌注显像剂

  • 目前常用的传统正电子心肌灌注显像剂主要包括82Rb、13N-NH315O-H2O。82Rb作为钾(K+)的类似物,通过心肌细胞 Na+ /K+ 泵主动转运实现成像。 82Rb制备简便,但物理半衰期较短(1.25 min),心肌的首次通过摄取率相对较低[4]13N-NH3主要以离子 NH4+ 的形式存在,以被动扩散方式进入心肌细胞,并转化为谷氨酰胺滞留于心肌细胞内。13N-NH3 制备需要使用回旋加速器,半衰期为 9.96 min。与 82Rb 相比,其具有更高的图像分辨率和对比度[5]15O-H2O是一种代谢惰性物质,半衰期为2.06 min,制备需要使用在线回旋加速器。15O-H2O的心肌摄取量与心肌血流呈线性相关,是心肌血流定量的理想示踪剂,但可能因血池和心肌摄取平衡而影响图像判断[4]

  • 针对传统示踪剂半衰期短和设备依赖性强的问题,新型PET灌注示踪剂的研究集中在使用18F作为放射性同位素。18F标记的示踪剂具有110 min的较长半衰期,便于中心生产及区域间配送[6]。根据线粒体靶向机制,18F标记的示踪剂主要分为两类:一类为亲脂性阳离子;另一类为特异性结合线粒体复合物-1(MC1)受体的抑制剂类似物[1]。亲脂性阳离子显像剂与SPECT心肌灌注显像剂99m TC-甲氧异腈(99m TC-sestamibi,99m TC-MIBI)和 99m TC-替取膦 (99m TC-tetrofosmin)机制相似,凭借脂溶性及携带正电荷等特性实现心肌细胞内积聚。这类示踪剂对线粒体膜电位变化敏感,适用于检测心肌异常状态。然而,18F-氟苄基三苯基膦(18F-FBnTP)等亲脂性阳离子类示踪剂大多处于临床前研究阶段,尚缺乏大规模人体临床数据的支持[7]。相比之下,MC1 受体抑制剂18F-氟哌啶酮(18F-flurpiridaz)作为哒螨灵衍生物,已完成临床Ⅲ期试验。试验结果表明其在缺血范围评估、诊断确定率、图像质量和辐射剂量方面均优于SPECT灌注成像[8]

  • 2.2 心肌代谢显像剂

  • 18F-氟代脱氧葡萄糖(18F-flurodeoxyglucose, 18F-FDG)作为心肌代谢放射性示踪剂,在评估心肌活力、炎症或感染状况方面发挥着重要作用。18F-FDG 与葡萄糖结构相似,能够与葡萄糖竞争进入心肌细胞,并在细胞内经过己糖激酶磷酸化为 18F-FDG-6-磷酸。由于18F-FDG-6-磷酸无法进一步代谢,从而在细胞内滞留实现放射性成像。

  • 在生理条件下,心肌细胞主要通过脂肪酸β-氧化获取能量,但在缺血状态下,脂肪酸代谢减少,心肌的能量来源转变为葡萄糖代谢[9]。缺血可以促进葡萄糖转运蛋白 4(glucose transporter 4,GLUT4) 在心肌细胞膜上的转位,从而增加心肌对18F-FDG 的摄取[10]。在葡萄糖负荷条件下,高血糖水平会刺激胰岛素分泌,激活心肌细胞膜上的GLUT4,促使葡萄糖进入心肌细胞。在评估存活心肌时,为增强缺血心肌对18F-FDG的摄取和利用,常使用口服葡萄糖负荷联合胰岛素的方法调节血糖浓度[11]。此外,18F-FDG也用于评估心肌炎性病变,这一过程主要由葡萄糖转运蛋白 1(glucose transporter 1, GLUT1)介导[12]。在评估前,通常采用长期禁食或高脂肪低碳水化合物饮食的方法,以减少正常心肌对18F-FDG的生理性摄取,从而更准确地识别炎症区域[13]

  • 2.3 心脏淀粉样蛋白显像剂

  • 淀粉样蛋白 PET 显像剂最初用于阿尔茨海默病中β-淀粉样蛋白的成像,但它们在检测心脏淀粉样变性方面也显示出了实际应用价值。这些示踪剂通常基于两种骨架结构(硫磺素-T 和刚果红)来开发[14]。其中,11C-匹兹堡化合物 B(11C-Pittsburgh compound-B,11C-PiB)是硫磺素-T的衍生物,能够与淀粉样蛋白原纤维中的β折叠结构结合,实现特异性成像[15]。此外,18F标记的示踪剂,如18F-氟贝他吡 (18F-florbetapir)和18F-氟贝他苯(18F-florbetaben)等也在心脏淀粉样变性的检测和评估中显示出巨大的潜力,并在不断地被研发和应用[16]

  • 2.4 心脏成纤维活化蛋白抑制剂

  • 成纤维活化蛋白(fibroblast activated protein, FAP)是一种与细胞外基质重塑密切相关的膜结合丝氨酸蛋白酶。在健康的成人组织中,FAP的表达水平较低,但在活化的心脏成纤维细胞(cardiac fi-broblasts,CF)中高度表达,被认为是心肌损伤、纤维化及心室重塑的标志物[17]。正因如此,以FAP为靶点的正电子成像技术,已成为评估心脏活化CF水平的有效手段。目前,针对 FAP 表达的抑制剂(FAP inhibitor,FAPI)已在多种恶性肿瘤的诊断中取得了成功,显示出其在医学成像领域的应用潜力。同时,FAPI在心脏疾病及其他疾病中的应用前景也在不断得到研究和证实[18]

  • 2.5 心脏自主神经受体显像剂

  • 自主神经系统(autonomic nervous system,ANS) 主要由交感神经系统(sympathetic nervous system, SNS)和副交感神经系统(parasympathetic nervous system,PNS)两部分组成,在调控心血管功能方面扮演着至关重要的角色[19]。这一复杂系统通过直接释放神经递质或间接释放激素及其他效应分子,对心脏及其他靶器官进行精确地调控。交感神经末梢主要释放去甲肾上腺素(norepinephrine,NE),作用于心肌细胞上的β1肾上腺素能受体,引发正性变时、变力、变传导效应,导致心肌收缩力增强、心率加快和传导速度提升。而副交感神经则通过释放乙酰胆碱,作用于心肌细胞的毒蕈碱受体,产生相反的负性作用。心脏自主神经受体显像剂主要包括针对SNS和PNS突触前和突触后受体的放射性示踪剂。常用的显像剂设计上采用与NE相似的分子结构,例如SPECT显像剂123I-间碘苄胍(123I-meta-io-dobenzylguanidine,123I-MIBG)和PET显像剂11C-羟基麻黄碱(11C-hydroxyephedrine,11C-HED)[20]。此外,正在研究中的 18F-N-[3-溴-4(-3-18F-氟代丙氧基)-苄基]-胍{ N-[3-bromo-4(-3-18F-fluoropropoxy)-benzyl]-guanidine,18F-LMI1195}在小鼠模型中展现出了良好的图像质量和生物安全性,预示着它可能成为一个更实用、更易于普及的显像剂[21]

  • 3 心脏PET成像的相关临床应用

  • 3.1 冠状动脉疾病

  • 3.1.1 PET心肌血流定量技术

  • 与传统的心肌灌注检查不同,PET心肌血流定量技术能够通过连续动态采集图像,定量计算静息和负荷状态下的心肌血流量(myocardial blood flow, MBF)及心肌血流储备(myocardial blood flow reserve, MFR)[22]。MFR 是负荷状态下 MBF 与静息状态下 MBF 的比值,是评估心肌血流适应性的重要指标。研究表明,基于 PET 的心肌灌注显像(myocardial perfusion imaging,MPI)在缺血诊断准确性和预后评估方面具有更高的价值[23-25]。Fiechter等[26] 指出,使用MFR<2.0作为缺血判定指标,可显著提高冠状动脉疾病(coronary artery disease,CAD)的诊断灵敏度和准确度。此外,基于 PET 的 MPI 能够避免传统 SPECT MPI 视觉分析可能低估阻塞性 CAD 病变范围的问题,尤其是在心肌血流灌注普遍降低形成 “均衡缺血”时,基于PET的MPI能够更准确地评估心肌血流状态[27]

  • PET心肌血流定量技术还有助于识别非阻塞性冠状动脉缺血性疾病(ischemia with non-obstructive coronary arteries,INOCA)[28],其中冠状动脉微循环功能障碍(coronary microvascular dysfunction,CMD) 是该疾病的常见原因之一[29]。PET血流定量技术是评估冠脉血管舒缩功能的无创方法,可以在冠状动脉解剖结构未发生异常之前早期探测血管和微血管功能的异常改变,推荐用于CMD的诊断[30]。欧洲介入心脏病学会专家共识指出,在排除心外膜阻塞性冠状动脉疾病的情况下,冠脉血流储备(coronary flow reserve,CFR)的降低是 CMD 的标志[31]。CMD 既可独立存在,引发微血管性心绞痛,也可与其他心血管疾病如阻塞性冠心病、原发性心肌病等同时存在,并影响特定人群的缺血机制,如肾衰竭、糖尿病及绝经后女性患者等[32-33]

  • PET 衍生的定量参数(MBF 及 MFR)也是 CAD 患者预后评估的关键参数。Harjulahti 等[34] 指出充血 MBF 的降低与阻塞性 CAD 患者心脏不良事件 (major adverse cardiac event,MACE)的发生风险相关。Felten 等[35] 研究也表明区域 MFR 降低是 CAD 患者MACE和全因死亡的独立预测因素。针对已接受冠状动脉旁路移植术(coronary artery bypass graft-ing,CABG)的患者,MFR<2.0 能够预测后续 MACE 的发生[36]

  • 3.1.2 心肌活力评估

  • 18F-FDG PET心肌代谢显像被认为是检测存活心肌的“金标准”[10]。在实际临床应用中,常将静息心肌血流灌注与 18F-FDG 代谢相结合,以评估缺血心肌病变的性质。在图像评估时,可能观察到以下 4 种模式:①正常模式:灌注和代谢均正常,通常见于健康心肌区域,但在发生短暂但强烈缺血后的顿抑心肌中也可观察到这种模式。②匹配模式:灌注和代谢均减少,表明存在不可逆的瘢痕和非活性心肌。③不匹配模式:灌注减少而代谢保持,这是冬眠心肌的特征,表明心肌虽缺血但代谢活性仍存在,具有血运重建后恢复功能的潜力。④反向不匹配模式:代谢受损而灌注正常,可能见于非缺血性心肌病、左束支传导阻滞或糖尿病等情况,反映非缺血性疾病中的心肌瘢痕形成[37]。既往多项研究表明,心肌活力测试对于指导缺血性心肌病患者的血运重建及医疗管理决策、预测血运重建后的症状改善具有重要意义[38]

  • 然而,近年来一些大型前瞻性研究如PARR-2、 STICH的试验结论对心肌活力测试的益处提出了质疑。PARR-2 多中心研究表明,PET 评估存活心肌组的 MACE 发生率与常规治疗组相比并未显著降低[39]。STICH试验5年及10年的随访数据表明,无论患者是否具有存活心肌,其接受单纯药物治疗或药物联合 CABG 的全因死亡率均无显著差异[40-41]。然而,上述试验在方法学及实施过程中均存在一定程度的局限性[42-43]。如PARR-2试验中患者治疗方式的选择并未完全依据PET的成像结果。STICH试验的存活心肌评估并非采用金标准 PET 心肌代谢显像,而是使用多巴酚丁胺负荷超声心动图或 SPECT 成像等。因此,目前并不能仅凭上述试验结果完全否定血运重建的益处和心肌活力测试的临床价值,存活心肌成像的临床意义仍需进一步验证[44]

  • 3.2 心脏结节病

  • 结节病是一种可影响心脏和全身多个器官的非干酪性肉芽肿性疾病[45]。心脏结节病(cardiac sarcoidosis,CS)临床表现多样,症状轻重不一,包括心脏传导异常和潜在的致命性猝死风险[46]。由于 CS症状隐匿且缺乏特异性生物标志物,其患病率常被低估[47]18F-FDG PET作为CS的无创诊断方式之一,可检测心肌中存在的活动性炎症。CS PET成像包括心肌灌注成像和 18F-FDG 代谢成像,在存在炎症的情况下,由于微血管的挤压或纤维化导致灌注和 18F-FDG 代谢之间的不匹配[48]。值得注意的是,单独的区域性18F-FDG摄取对于CS诊断并不具备特异性,仅代表一个炎症区域。此外,心脏 MRI 的延迟强化(late gadolinium enhancement,LGE)也是 CS 诊断的关键模式,有助于识别其他类型心肌病或浸润性疾病。CS的LGE成像特点通常表现为斑片状分布,主要影响左心室基底段及室间隔,而心内膜下区域较少受累[49]。一体化成像设备PET/MR可同时获得上述两种成像方式的图像信息,为CS的诊断提供增益价值[50]。此外,基于生长抑素受体的68Ga-DOTA-酪氨酸3-奥曲肽(68Ga-DOTA-Tyr3-octreotide, 68Ga-DOTATOC)成像被提议用于检测活动性CS,与 18F-FDG 反映的非特异性白细胞浸润不同,68Ga-DOTATOC 能够识别活动性肉芽肿性疾病,有望提高活动性CS诊断的特异度[51-52]

  • 3.3 心脏淀粉样变性

  • 淀粉样变性是一种多系统性疾病,其特征是异常蛋白质错误折叠形成淀粉样蛋白纤维,并在细胞外基质中异常沉积[53]。这些沉积物的积累会损害组织结构和功能,最终导致受影响器官的损伤和衰竭。淀粉样变性有多种分类,但导致心脏淀粉样变性(cardiac amyloidosis,CA)的主要类型有两种(占 95%以上),即转甲状腺素蛋白淀粉样变型(ATTR 型)和单克隆免疫球蛋白轻链型(AL型)。ATTR型又分为突变型(ATTRm)和野生型(ATTRwt)[54]。 ATTRm与TTR基因的变异有关,心脏受累率取决于具体的基因变异,但几乎所有 ATTRwt 都会表现出心脏受累。在AL型患者中,高达75%的人会出现心脏受累,其病程进展迅速,预后不佳,未经治疗的中位生存时间少于6个月[55]

  • 骨SPECT示踪剂如99m Tc-PYP/DPD/HDP可用于 ATTR-CA的诊断,其作用机制尚不明确,可能与AT-TR-CA 淀粉样纤维中微钙化灶密度较高相关[56]。骨显像对ATTR-CA的诊断灵敏度和特异度分别为 92.2%和95.4%,但其并不适用于AL-CA和罕见类型 CA的诊断[57]。近年来,淀粉样蛋白PET示踪剂等通过与淀粉样蛋白特异性结合来实现成像,对 CA 具有极高的诊断价值。Kim等[58] 一项荟萃分析指出淀粉样蛋白 PET 显像对 CA 的诊断灵敏度为 97%,特异度为98%,具有较高的诊断价值。Rosengren等[59] 研究显示,11C-PIB PET在检测主要类型的心脏淀粉样变性方面表现出极高的准确性,特别是在AL-CA 中达到了 100%的准确率。此外,在没有已知心脏受累的淀粉样变性患者中,部分患者心肌11C-PIB的摄取呈阳性,表明 PET 成像可能有助于早期发现 CA。与骨 SPECT 示踪剂不同,PET 淀粉样蛋白对 AL型的亲和力高于对ATTR型的亲和力,但具体机制还需要进一步研究[60]

  • 3.4 心力衰竭

  • 过度激活的心脏交感神经系统是进行性心力衰竭的标志[61]。在正常情况下,释放的 NE 主要通过突触前膜上的去甲肾上腺素转运体(norepineph-rine transporter,NET)再摄取回囊泡。但在心力衰竭的早期,为了维持生理平衡,SNS的补偿性激活导致再摄取机制的下调[62]。这种变化导致心脏和β-肾上腺素受体暴露于更高浓度的NE,增加心律失常的风险。持续高水平的NE还会导致β-肾上腺素受体的脱敏和下调,使心肌对交感神经刺激的反应减弱,进一步削弱心功能。长期高水平的NE还可能引起心肌细胞过度刺激,导致心肌重构,加速心力衰竭的进程[63]

  • 心力衰竭患者由于NET表达下降,再摄取机制受损,在心脏交感神经显像中表现为“去神经支配”,即心肌放射性摄取减少,出现局部放射性缺损[19]11C-HED PET成像可以预测心力衰竭患者的致命心律失常、心源性猝死(sudden cardiac arrest, SCA)和全因死亡率。PAREPET大型前瞻性研究显示,在缺血性心肌病中,11C-HED PET评估的交感神经去神经支配是预测 SCA 的独立危险因素[64]。初步的11C-HED PET 成像研究还表明,射血分数保持的心力衰竭患者整体 11C-HED 滞留指数(retention index,RI)显著低于正常志愿者,并且RI与舒张功能障碍的严重程度密切相关[65]。这些研究表明,心脏交感神经显像在心力衰竭的诊断和管理中具有重要价值。

  • 3.5 心肌纤维化

  • 心肌纤维化(myocardial fibrosis,MF)是指正常心肌细胞被纤维组织所替代的过程,是多种心脏疾病发展到一定阶段的共同病理改变。虽然心肌纤维化是心脏损伤愈合反应的一部分,但它可能导致心肌运动功能障碍、电生理活动异常,并增加心力衰竭的风险。心肌纤维化的存在和严重程度与患者的不良预后紧密相关[66]

  • 在心肌纤维化过程中,活化的CF扮演着关键角色。Varasteh 等[67] 研究团队首次在小鼠心肌梗死 (myocardial infarction,MI)模型中证实,使用放射性标记的 FAP 抑制剂 68Ga-FAPI-04 可以成功对 MI 后活化的 CF 进行成像。在冠状动脉结扎模型中, 68Ga-FAPI-04的连续成像显示,梗死区域及其周边在 6 d后出现强烈的放射性摄取峰值,随后摄取逐渐减少,在2周内恢复到基线水平。这表明68Ga-FAPI-04 成像能够展示CF活化和纤维化形成的过程。Diek-mann 等[68] 研究也进一步验证了 68Ga-FAPI-04 在 MI 后纤维化检测中的有效性。这项研究对 12 例 PCI 术后的ST段抬高性MI患者进行分析,发现不仅在 MI区域出现了强烈的放射性摄取,并且摄取延伸至梗死周围区域,而在远端心肌未观察到放射性摄取。上述结果表明除了瘢痕区存在替代性纤维化外,MI 相邻区域也存在间质和血管周围的反应性纤维化。尽管未观察到远端未受伤心肌中68Ga-FAPI-04的摄取增加,但由于研究的局限性,如缺乏长期随访和病例数较少,未来仍需进一步研究来评估FAPI监测远离损伤心肌区域纤维化形成的能力。68Ga-FAPI-04 作为一种先进的非侵入性纤维化成像技术,为评估 CF活化提供了间接证据,有助于确定预防纤维化和改变病程的时间窗口。此外,68Ga-FAPI-04 还可以作为筛选患者和评估治疗效果的理想试剂,对开发抗纤维化药物和嵌合抗原受体 T 细胞疗法(chimeric antigen receptor T-cell therapy,CAR-T)等新疗法具有重要意义[69]

  • 4 展望

  • 心脏PET成像作为一种先进的心脏成像技术,正逐步成为心脏疾病诊断与管理的重要工具。随着特异性示踪剂的不断研发及一体化成像设备的持续优化,未来心脏PET有望提供更全面的心脏结构和功能评估,为心脏疾病的诊断、治疗和预后评估带来新的发展机遇。

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