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通讯作者:

秦超,E⁃mail:qinchao@njmu.edu.cn

中图分类号:R737.1

文献标识码:A

文章编号:1007-4368(2021)01-141-08

DOI:10.7655/NYDXBNS20210127

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目录contents

    摘要

    免疫系统对于肿瘤的发生、发展及预后有着重要的影响。随着研究进展,肿瘤的免疫治疗已取得长足发展。目前的免疫治疗主要包括免疫检查点阻断、非特异性激活免疫系统、过继性细胞免疫治疗、肿瘤疫苗等,其中程序性死亡受体(pro⁃ grammed death 1,PD⁃1)/程序性死亡配体⁃1(programmed death⁃ligand 1,PD⁃L1)信号通路和细胞毒T淋巴细胞抗原4(cytotoxic T⁃ lymphocyte antigen 4,CTLA⁃4)是目前晚期肿瘤临床治疗的研究热点。本文旨在对免疫检查点抑制剂在泌尿系统恶性肿瘤中的应用进行综述。

    Abstract

    The immune system has an important impact on the occurrence,development and prognosis of tumors. With the progress of research,the immunotherapy of tumors has made great progress. Current immunotherapy mainly includes immunological checkpoint blockade,non ⁃ specific activation of the immune system,adoptive cellular immunotherapy,tumor vaccine,etc. Among them, programmed death 1(PD ⁃ 1)and its ligand(PD ⁃ L1)signaling pathway and cytotoxic T ⁃lymphocyte antigen 4(CTLA ⁃ 4)are the research hotspots of clinical treatment of advanced tumors. This article aims to review the application of immunosuppressive drugs in urinary tumors.

  • 泌尿系统肿瘤是人群常见的肿瘤。资料显示,泌尿系统恶性肿瘤在我国的新增肿瘤中占有很大比例。其中,肾细胞癌、前列腺癌、尿路上皮癌分别占1.56%、1.47%、1.89%[1]。目前临床上对于早期局限性泌尿系统恶性肿瘤的治疗方法主要是手术治疗,而对于局部进展或晚期转移性恶性肿瘤,则需根据患者的具体情况采用联合治疗。但事实上,尽管采用了联合治疗,仍有许多患者获益不明显,无法避免复发、疾病进展所带来的负面影响。肿瘤细胞可以通过免疫逃逸来避免免疫系统对其攻击,从而获得良好的生长环境,这一点早有定论。消除免疫逃逸理论上有可能恢复免疫系统的抗肿瘤作用。生物免疫治疗分主动免疫或被动免疫、体液免疫和细胞免疫,也属异军突起。目前的免疫治疗主要包括免疫检查点阻断[如程序性死亡受体(pro⁃ grammed death 1,PD ⁃ 1)/程序性死亡配体⁃ 1(pro⁃ grammed death⁃ligand 1,PD⁃L1)信号通路阻断剂、细胞毒T淋巴细胞抗原4(cytotoxic T⁃lymphocyte anti⁃ gen 4,CTLA⁃4)阻断剂]、非特异性激活免疫系统(如细胞因子、卡介苗等)、过继性细胞免疫治疗(体外激活及扩增免疫细胞)、肿瘤疫苗(以肿瘤组织作为抗原)等[2]。事实上,对肿瘤的免疫靶向治疗已经取得长足发展。本文旨在对免疫检查点抑制药在泌尿系统恶性肿瘤中的应用进行综述。

  • 1 泌尿系统肿瘤免疫靶向治疗的背景

  • 1.1 T细胞活化与抗肿瘤免疫治疗概述

  • 肿瘤免疫治疗是应用免疫学原理和方法,提高肿瘤细胞的免疫原性和对效应细胞杀伤的敏感性,激发和增强机体抗肿瘤免疫应答,协同机体免疫系统杀伤肿瘤、抑制肿瘤生长。其过程经过:①释放肿瘤抗原,②肿瘤抗原提呈,③激活T细胞,④T细胞趋化和浸润肿瘤细胞,⑤T细胞识别肿瘤细胞,⑥ T细胞最终杀灭肿瘤细胞,故T细胞活化在抗肿瘤免疫治疗中具有重要作用。在过去的20年中,大量研究证实了肿瘤上的抗原可以被T细胞所识别,这提示了T淋巴细胞在抗肿瘤免疫应答中的潜在作用[3-4]。同时,抗肿瘤免疫治疗也逐渐从过继输注向内在激活转变,从非特异免疫向靶向免疫转变[5]

  • 1.2 PD⁃1/PD⁃L1与CTLA⁃4抑制剂的药理机制

  • 免疫靶向治疗是针对T细胞活化的靶向,而非肿瘤特异性靶向。免疫检查点如PD⁃1/PD⁃L1信号通路和CTLA⁃4可抑制机体适应性应答,令肿瘤逃避免疫系统的监视。PD⁃1与CTLA⁃4具有同源性,且都是T细胞表面重要的抑制性受体。PD⁃1是一种Ⅰ型跨膜糖蛋白,具有比CTLA⁃4更广的表达范围,除了T细胞亚群,还在B细胞、自然杀伤(NK)细胞、树突状细胞、多种恶性肿瘤原发部位存在异常高表达[6]。PD⁃1有两个配体,即PD⁃L1和PD⁃L2,都在抗原提呈细胞表达,PD ⁃L1在多种组织也有表达。研究表明,PD⁃1可与其配体PD⁃L1结合,使得PD⁃1胞内段的免疫受体酪氨酸转换基序(immuno⁃ receptor tyrosine⁃based switch motif,ITSM)激活,从而实现对SHP家族磷酸酶的募集,进而抑制T细胞的增殖与活性,对人体免疫应答起到负调节作用[7-9]。同时,恶性肿瘤组织内的炎性T细胞分泌的γ⁃干扰素(INF⁃γ)可诱导肿瘤细胞高表达PD⁃L1 [10],通过PD⁃1/PD⁃L1信号通路来降低免疫系统对肿瘤组织的杀伤作用。CTLA⁃4与CD28具有相似的特征,但CTLA⁃4可以通过CD4+ T细胞特征性地减弱T细胞的激活作用,从而导致辅助性T细胞(Th)免疫反应的广泛性减弱。针对PD⁃1、PD⁃L1、CTLA⁃4这几个靶点的阻断剂可解除抑制机体正常免疫的“刹车” 来实现T细胞活化,从而达到抗肿瘤效果。不同的免疫检查点抑制剂的作用机制不同,发挥的时间段以及效应也有区别。CTLA⁃4抑制剂Ipilimumab在免疫反应早期启动阶段起作用,阻断CD80/86与CTLA⁃4的结合,从而刺激T细胞大量增殖。而PD⁃ 1/PD⁃L1抑制剂则在免疫反应晚期杀伤阶段起作用,使激活的T细胞在PD⁃1/PD⁃L1通路阻断情况下持续处于活化状态。

  • 2 已上市的用于泌尿系统肿瘤的免疫检查点抑制剂

  • 已上市的被批准用于泌尿系统肿瘤的免疫检查点抑制剂主要以PD⁃1、PD⁃L1为靶点。

  • 2.1 PD⁃1抗体

  • Nivolumab单抗是一种全人源化IgG4免疫球蛋白,其于2018年8月在中国上市,治疗推荐剂量为3mg/kg,由于其剂型是40mg/4mL和100mg/10mL两种,患者的体重通常为60kg以上,因此一般每次的用量是200~240mg,患者每隔2周用药1次,每次用药的时间不少于30min。Nivolumab单抗的适应证包括转移性黑色素瘤、肾癌、经过治疗的晚期非小细胞肺癌、转移性肺癌。在泌尿系统肿瘤的治疗中,其常作为肾细胞癌二线治疗药物与膀胱癌的二线治疗药物。Nivolumab单抗的禁忌证相对较少,但对其活性成分存在超敏反应的患者禁止使用。

  • 2.2 PD⁃L1抗体

  • 目前,已上市的以PD⁃L1为靶点的检查点抑制药有Atezolizumab单抗、Avelumab单抗与Duvalumab单抗。Atezolizumab是一种无抗体依赖的细胞介导的细胞毒作用(ADCC)的人源化IgG4抗体,同时也是美国食品药品监督管理局(FDA)批准的第一个PD⁃L1抑制剂,常作为无法进行常规铂类化疗的局部晚期或转移性尿路上皮癌与膀胱癌的二线治疗药物。市场上的包装规格为1 200mg/20mL(60mg/mL),使用前需稀释,用量为每3周给予1 200mL作1次为时60min的静脉注射,但有严重不良反应的患者不予使用。

  • Avelumab单抗是以PD⁃L1为靶点的二线用药,常用于治疗经标准方案治疗后出现疾病进展的局部晚期或转移性尿路上皮癌,对有明显不良反应的患者不予使用。通常,成人每隔2周注射1次10mg/kg体重,并进行1h以上的静脉点滴。

  • Duvalumab与Atezolizumab同为人源化IgG4免疫球蛋白。Duvalumab单抗常用作治疗以铂类为基础的标准方案治疗后出现疾病进展的局部晚期或转移性尿路上皮癌。一般治疗用法为每2周进行1次10mg/kg静脉输注1h。

  • 3 PD⁃1/PD⁃L1 与CTLA⁃4 抑制剂在泌尿系统肿瘤的应用

  • 3.1 尿路上皮癌

  • 目前临床上对于尿路上皮癌的治疗策略正逐渐从晚期系统治疗向早期疾病诊断、从单药治疗向多因素治疗过渡[11-14]。根据既往的临床指南[15-16], 2016年之前,化疗是局部晚期或转移性尿路上皮癌患者的唯一选择,对无禁忌的患者,含铂化疗联合用药方案依旧是标准疗法。含卡铂化疗的临床试验结果很少,在3期临床试验中的中位生存期是9个月[17]。但当含铂化疗失败之后,患者继续存活期很短,且备选药物(紫杉醇类、培美曲塞、长春氟宁)毒性较大。

  • 3.1.1 局部晚期或转移性患者的一线治疗

  • 免疫检查点抑制剂对于尿路上皮癌的治疗已取得初步成果。最近的一项多中心、单臂、双队列 Ⅱ期IMvigor 210研究[18],队列一为119例一期顺铂不耐受患者每3周1次予Atezolizumab1 200mg Ⅳ 治疗直至进展,与队列二纳入含铂治疗进展的局部晚期或转移性尿路上皮癌(mUC)比较,进而评估Atezolizumab对不适合顺铂治疗的mUC患者的疗效和安全性。中位随访时间为17.2个月。该研究采用Ventana PD ⁃L1(SP142)法作为PD ⁃L1的检测方法,免疫组化结果显示,PD⁃L1高表达(27%),PD⁃L1低表达或表达阴性(73%)。客观缓解率(ORR)在全部患者中为23%,在PD⁃L1高表达组为28%,在PD⁃ L1低表达或阴性表达组为21%。中位总生存期 (OS)在全部患者中为15.9个月,在PD⁃L1高表达组为12.3个月,在PD⁃L1低表达或阴性表达组为19.1个月,均高于一线顺铂不耐受化疗的平均OS(<10个月),表明Atezolizumab具有更好的疗效。而PD⁃L1表达和疗效缺乏一致性表现:PD⁃L1低表达患者的ORR低于高表达患者(21%vs.28%),但OS反而更高(19.1个月 vs.12.3个月)。

  • Pembrolizumab是一种人源性IgG4κ亚型抗体,对PD⁃1具有高度选择性。一项多中心开放性Ⅱ期KEYNOTE⁃052研究中[19],纳入374例不适合顺铂治疗,既往未治的mUC患者,每3周1次予Pembroli⁃ zumab200mg Ⅳ治疗24个月,评估其疗效和安全性。该研究采用Dako22C3法作为PD⁃L1的检测方法,根据肿瘤细胞和炎性细胞组合阳性评分(CPS),其中≥10分为PD⁃L1高表达,<10分为PD⁃L1低表达或阴性表达。结果显示,全部患者的ORR为24%,达到6个月无疾病进展生存期(PFS)和6个月OS的比例分别为30%和67%,PD⁃L1高表达患者的ORR明显高于全部患者,可达38%。以10%的PD⁃L1表达为界,PD⁃L1表达越多,对Pembrolizumab的缓解率越高。

  • 目前一项正在进行患者募集的Ⅲ期、随机、开放、多中心全球研究[20],其目标纳入1 005例不可手术切除的Ⅳ期尿路上皮癌患者(一线),根据是否适合顺铂治疗(适合vs.不适合)、PD⁃L1表达状态(高vs.低/阴性)、脏器转移(有vs.无)分层,按照1∶1∶1配对分为3组(n=335)。第1组第1阶段接受Durvalumab静脉注射1 500mg(4周1次)与Tremelimumab(抗CTLA⁃4)静脉注射75mg(4周1次),共4次。第1阶段治疗完成后接受Durvalumab静脉注射1 500mg (4周1次),直到确定疾病进展。第2组接受Dur⁃ valumab静脉注射1 500mg(4周1次),直到确定疾病进展。第3组接受顺铂+吉西他滨或卡铂+吉西他滨的标准治疗(Soc)。该研究评估的主要终点为OS的比较(所有参与者联合治疗 vs.SoC;PD⁃L1阳性患者单药治疗 vs.SoC),次要终点为单药及联合治疗的PFS、ORR、健康相关生存质量(HRQoL)、药代动力学(PK)、安全性,以此来用于评估Durvalumab一线治疗晚期/无法切除或转移性尿路上皮癌的疗效与安全性。该研究计划于2019年9月完成,其最终结果值得期待。

  • 3.1.2 局部晚期或转移性患者的二线治疗

  • 近期共有6项关于局部晚期或转移性患者二线治疗的研究[21-26],其全部患者的ORR都优于二线化疗的平均ORR(12%)[12]。6项中仅1项研究的OS低于二线化疗平均OS(<9个月)[12]

  • 其中一项Ⅲ期国际开放性研究[25],纳入542例1~2线含铂化疗后进展或围手术期含铂治疗12个月内复发的尿路上皮癌,随机分为Pembrolizumab200mg Ⅳ(3周1次)治疗2年(n=270)或化疗组(n=272,紫杉醇或多西他赛或长春氟宁)。在接受Pembroli⁃ zumab的270例患者中,74例(27.4%)为PD⁃L1高表达患者(CPS≥10分)。研究的中位随访时间为14.1个月,随访截止时间为2016年9月7日。结果显示, Pembrolizumab组全部患者的ORR为21.1%,OS为10.3个月,优于化疗(ORR=11.4%;风险比HR=0.73, 95%CI=0.59~0.91)。但PD⁃L1表达与疗效未见显著关联:高表达患者的ORR为21.6%,OS为8.0个月。

  • 另一项Ⅰ/Ⅱ期多中心、开放研究[21],纳入疾病进展且不适合或拒绝既往化疗的转移性或晚期尿路上皮癌患者191例,每2周1次予Durvalumab10mg/kg治疗12个月或至疾病进展,评估其疗效和安全性。结果显示,191例中51%为PD⁃L1高表达。全部患者的ORR为17.8%,中位总生存期为18.2个月。PD⁃L1高表达患者可获得更高获益:ORR可高达27.6%,OS可高达20个月。

  • 3.2 肾癌

  • 免疫检查点抑制剂在肾癌的研究从单药治疗到多种联用策略均有所涉及[27-29]

  • 《新英格兰医学杂志》2015年的一项Ⅲ期随机、开放性标签研究[30] 纳入821例既往接受过1/2次抗血管生成治疗的晚期或转移性肾透明细胞癌的患者,并将其随机分配Nivolumab3mg/kg静脉滴注 (2周1次)治疗(n=410)或依维莫司10mg口服(每天),直至疾病进展,用以评估其疗效和安全性。在纳入的患者中,PD⁃L1高表达率为24%,但PD⁃L1表达与临床疗效未见一致性关系。Nivolumab治疗患者的ORR为25%;OS为25个月,而依维莫司组患者的ORR仅5%,OS为19.6个月,表明Nivolumab治疗优于依维莫司。

  • 目前有许多正在进行的进展期肾癌的Ⅲ期临床试验(一线治疗),这些研究的治疗策略为抗血管生成药物+PD⁃1/PD⁃L1抗体以及PD⁃1/PD⁃L1抗体+ CTLA⁃4抗体。一项正在进行的随机、平行、双盲的 Ⅲ期CheckMate914研究[31],旨在评估Nivolumab联合Ipilimumab(抗CTLA⁃4)对局限性肾细胞癌的治疗效果。该项研究目标募集800例患者,且每个患者需满足:①随机化前4~12周肾肿瘤已完全切除; ②病理TNM分期符合以下任意一期:pT2a、G3或G4、N0M0;pT2b、任意G、N0M0;pT3、任意G、N0M0; pT4、任意G、N0M0;任意pT、任意G、N1M0;③肾切除术后肿瘤显示显著的透明细胞组织学,包括肉瘤样特征的患者。募集的符合要求的患者经配对后分为Nivolumab+Ipilimumab治疗组与安慰剂组,经24周治疗后评估疗效。主要终点为DFS,重要的次要终点为OS、安全性和耐受性。

  • 3.3 前列腺癌

  • 目前,免疫检查点抑制剂在治疗前列腺癌中应用较局限。但初步数据显示,免疫检查点抑制剂在早期前列腺癌中具有降低PSA的作用[32-34]。未来的治疗策略,可能需要改变肿瘤微环境,使其对免疫杀伤作用更敏感。

  • 一项关于转移性去势抵抗性前列腺癌 (mCRPC)的随机、双盲、安慰剂对照Ⅲ期多中心研究,纳入799例多西他赛治疗后疾病进展且至少有一处骨转移的CRPC患者,1∶1随机配对,每3周1次予Ipilimumab10mg/kg(n=399)或安慰剂(n=400)静脉滴注治疗,后加放疗,至多4剂,评估Ipilimumab的疗效和安全性。结果显示,Ipilimumab中位OS为11.2个月,安慰剂中位OS为10.0个月(风险比HR=0.85,P=0.053),差异无统计学意义,仍需进一步评估Ipilimumab的临床疗效[35]

  • 另一项随机、双盲、安慰剂对照Ⅲ期多中心研究[36],纳入598例未经化疗的、无症状或轻症mCRPC患者,2∶1随机配对,每3周1次予Ipilimum⁃ ab10mg/kg静脉滴注(n=399)或安慰剂2mg/kg静脉滴注(n=199)治疗,至多4剂。评估Ipilimumab的疗效和安全性。结果显示,Ipilimumab中位OS为28.7个月,安慰剂中位OS为29.7个月(P=0.367),表明Ipilimumab治疗未经化疗的mCRPC与安慰剂治疗组OS无显著差异。

  • 一项正在进行的平行分组、随机化Ⅲ期国际多中心研究,目标募集患者730例(中国40例),每个患者需满足以下条件:①雄激素合成抑制剂及紫杉烷治疗失败,不能根治的转移性或局灶限制性不可手术的mCRPC;②ECOG体能状态为0或1;③预期生存时间≥3个月。募集的患者经配对成两组,第1组接受Atezolizumab1 200mg静脉滴注(每3周1次)+ 恩杂鲁胺160mg口服(每天)治疗,第2组接受恩杂鲁胺160mg口服(每天)治疗,进而观察两组的疾病进展。主要终点为OS;重要的次要终点:①不良事件的发生率、性质、频率和严重程度;药代动力学指标;②至癌症相关疼痛进展的时间;至首次症状性骨骼事件的时间;③影像学无进展生存期;软组织病灶中缓解持续时间(DOR);至下一次全身抗癌治疗开始的时间。已完成的两项Ipilimumab治疗mCRPC的研究显示出免疫抑制剂治疗前列腺癌的局限性[35-36]。该研究给予Atezolizumab+恩杂鲁胺治疗mCRPC,当研究完成时,其大样本量的临床结果将会为免疫抑制剂是否对前列腺癌具有显著疗效这一争议性问题提供有力证据。

  • 4 免疫靶向治疗的脱靶效应及相关不良反应

  • 如果免疫治疗针对的抗原不仅表达于肿瘤细胞,在正常组织中也有表达,则免疫细胞将同时攻击正常组织,造成组织脏器损伤、自身免疫性疾病或免疫缺陷,出现明显的免疫相关不良反应 (immune ⁃ related adverse reaction,irAE),即脱靶效应[37]。免疫相关性不良反应可能会影响任何器官系统,如皮肤(斑丘疹、白癜风、银屑病、莱尔综合征、药物相关多器官迟发超敏反应)、胃肠道(小肠结肠炎、胃炎、胰腺炎、乳糜泻)、内分泌器官(甲状腺功能亢进或减低、垂体炎、肾上腺功能不全、糖尿病)、肺(免疫性肺炎、胸膜炎、肺肉瘤)、外周和中枢神经系统(外周神经病变、无菌性脑膜炎、格林巴利综合征、脑神经病变、脊髓炎、脑膜脑炎、肌无力)、肝脏(免疫性肝炎)、肾脏(间质性肾炎、狼疮性肾小球肾炎)、血液系统(溶血性贫血、血小板减少症、粒细胞减少症、三系减少症)、肌肉关节系统(关节炎、肌肉病变)、心脏(心包炎、心肌炎)、眼睛(葡萄膜炎、结膜炎、视网膜炎、脉络膜炎、眼睑炎、眶周肌炎)等[38]。所引发的毒性事件严重程度不一,有的症状较轻,易于治疗,有的症状严重至危及生命。临时使用免疫抑制药物可减弱这些不良反应,同时可能不会减弱抗肿瘤效应。在黑色素瘤患者中这些药物被广泛研究,经验和建议主要依据黑色素瘤的研究数据。然而随着这些抗体的应用量增长,irAE的诊断与处置原则在肿瘤学范畴中显得日益重要。

  • irAE根据常见不良反应事件评价标准(CTCAE) 严重程度分级可分为4级[38],3或4级的irAE需要住院治疗甚至考虑ICU,并采取相应的处理措施。事实上,大多数irAE为1或2级,主要影响皮肤和胃肠道,其次影响肝脏和内分泌系统[39]。在治疗过程中,最常出现的不良反应为疲乏、食欲下降、恶心、无力和皮疹等,整体严重不良反应(3/4级不良反应)发生率7%~13%,如果早期发现及时处理,大部分irAE是轻微且可逆转的[40]。同时,新一代的双特异性CAR⁃T技术的出现可增加癌细胞与正常细胞的区分性,这也有助于减少irAE的发生。

  • 不可忽视的是,免疫抑制剂仍会导致极为严重的致死性不良反应。Douglas B Johnson教授课题组于2018年在Lancet杂志发表的一篇评论文章显示[41],免疫治疗可能会导致免疫性心肌炎的发生,且此类不良反应病死率极高、目前仍缺乏公认有效的治疗手段。通过详细分析多个大型数据库,他们发现随着使用PD⁃1抑制剂的患者越来越多,最近4年报道PD ⁃1抑制剂导致免疫性心肌炎的案例也越来越多,分别为2014年的3例,2015年的6例,2016年的15例以及2017年的77例。该101例患者从接受PD⁃1抑制剂到发生严重心肌炎的中位时间间隔是27d,76%的患者在用药6周内就出现了心肌炎,最短的5d即出现心肌炎。除了免疫性心肌炎,大多数患者还同时合并其他的免疫性炎症,如肌炎、重症肌无力、严重的皮疹、肠炎等。虽然给予积极的医疗措施,仍有46例患者死亡,病死率高达46%,其中接受PD⁃1抑制剂+Ipilimumab的患者,病死率为67%,免疫性心肌炎症状更为显著;而PD⁃1抑制剂单用,病死率为36%。另外,梅奥诊所1项对于347例接受PD⁃1抗体治疗的晚期癌症患者的研究显示[42],PD⁃1抗体导致的神经系统相关的不良反应发生率约为2.9%。347例患者中,10例被确诊罹患PD⁃1导致的亚急性神经系统并发症,这可能有以下几个原因。其一,免疫抑制剂刺激的抗肿瘤免疫反应,可能与中枢神经系统自身抗原发生交叉反应;其二,治疗性抗体可识别神经系统的固有细胞中的靶分子(如CTLA⁃4、PD⁃1或PD⁃L1),并通过ADCC作用直接诱导局部损伤[42]。其中,7例患者接受Pembrolizumab, 3例患者接受Nivolumab。患者包括8例男性和2例女性,他们的中位年龄为71岁(年龄范围为31~78岁)。在出现神经系统的不良反应后,多数患者接受了激素、免疫抑制剂以及血浆置换等多种策略,其中9例逐渐好转,残留轻微的后遗症,1例严重的坏死性肌病患者,抢救无效死亡。

  • 近年高发的免疫治疗不良反应给持续升温的免疫检查点抑制剂的使用带来了冷思考,寻找应答的生物标志物是急需解决的问题。

  • 5 目前临床应用存在的问题及解决方法

  • 尽管免疫检查点抑制剂靶向作用CTLA⁃4和PD ⁃1/PD⁃L1极大改善了晚期恶性肿瘤患者的状况。但目前在临床上的应用仍存在许多问题。

  • 首先,严重免疫不良反应可能致命。一旦发生严重的不良反应,首先应立即停药并给予大剂量的激素进行治疗,对于激素治疗不满意的患者,可选择其他免疫调节药物,如肿瘤坏死因子α(tumor ne⁃ crosis factor α,TNF⁃α)抗体英利昔单抗、麦考酚酸酯、他利莫司、环孢素等。T细胞耗竭药物如抗人胸腺细胞球蛋白也在罕见案例中报道有效。但不可忽视的是,这些患者很有可能无法再继续使用原药物。在所有这些严重的免疫不良反应中,目前报道最多的为免疫相关性肺炎。虽然其临床分类复杂,表现各异,但是迅速确认这些不良反应并启动全身免疫抑制可以改善预后并且不影响免疫检查点抑制的疗效。同时,从来自CTLA⁃4单抗Ipilimumab治疗恶性黑色素瘤的经验来看,irAE发生的时间有一定规律性:皮肤相关的irAE发生在治疗后的2~3周;胃肠道和肝脏相关的irAE发生在治疗后的6~7周; 内分泌相关不良事件平均发生在治疗后的9周,有的免疫异常反应甚至在接受免疫治疗1年后才会发生。所以适时必要的检查是极其重要的。

  • 其次,作为主要针对免疫系统的治疗药物,临床上合并免疫功能异常疾病的肿瘤患者很有可能不适用这类药物[43]。事实上,在临床试验当中,诸如风湿性关节炎、银屑病、系统性红斑狼疮,甚至艾滋病、丙肝、乙肝患者,以及需要口服激素维持治疗的患者均被排除在外。这类患者使用免疫抑制剂时加重的风险在30%以上,早期的干预处理仍然可以控制PD⁃1/PD⁃L1抑制剂所引起的免疫相关性不良反应。而在疗效应用方面,免疫检查点抑制剂对这类患者仍然有效。因此,这类患者在使用时医生应与患者进行充分沟通,告知其合并疾病的症状有潜在的加重风险。

  • 最后,目前仍没有前瞻性数据来指导最佳的免疫抑制治疗方案,因此存在临床上应用混乱的情况,包括缺乏临床应用规范,用药方法不一致(术前术后)、是否联合用药。建议遵从根据公认的临床经验而制定的指导方案。免疫检查点抑制剂在不同疾病中的应用和新的联合使用方法的临床经验,将完善免疫相关性不良反应的认识和处置。2017年11月21日,癌症免疫治疗学会(SITC)旗下杂志《癌症免疫疗法》在线刊登了有关免疫检查点抑制剂在癌症治疗中的毒性管理建议,即《免疫检查点抑制剂相关毒性管理共识建议》[44],对临床医生使用免疫检查点抑制剂有着极大参考意义,为取得这种有前景的治疗方法的全部治疗潜力提供了机遇。

  • 6 总结与展望

  • 生物标志物(biomarker)是一类可以用来反映系统、器官、组织、细胞及亚细胞结构或功能发生或可能发生的改变的生化指标,其指标的变化可以用来识别人群中免疫治疗应答的人群。生物标志物在泌尿系统肿瘤的应用正逐渐向单个生物标志物[45] (如PD⁃L1、肿瘤突变负荷、微卫星不稳定性、基因表达谱、固有基因亚群、PD⁃L2、肿瘤浸润淋巴细胞)向多重生物标志物组合[46] (如突变负荷、PD⁃L1表达、 CD8+ T细胞密度)转变。但目前临床上许多生物标志物与应答的相关性仍待考证,同时检测肿瘤新抗原仍然有许多技术上的限制。事实上,我们常使用基因突变负荷作为肿瘤新抗原检测的替代标志物。越多的肿瘤基因突变,意味着越有可能产生具有免疫原性的新抗原。但是,基因突变而形成新抗原仍然是一项概率事件,该事件无法保证肿瘤细胞中发生突变的蛋白可表达于肿瘤细胞表面,形成新抗原。

  • 就目前来说,免疫检查点抑制剂在泌尿系统肿瘤领域前景广阔,发展迅猛,多种PD⁃1/PD⁃L1抑制剂已获批用于尿路上皮癌的一线及二线治疗。近年来不断有新的免疫检查点抑制剂被研发并批准应用于临床治疗,如今更是从单药治疗发展到免疫靶向联合治疗[47]。在一些临床试验中[18-21],免疫检查点抑制剂已显示出长期持久的反应和可耐受的安全性。然而,70%~80%的患者对免疫检查点抑制仍然没有反应。因此,需要进一步研究免疫检查点抑制剂治疗与其他治疗方式(例如细胞毒性化学疗法或不同的治疗靶标)相结合的方法,以加强免疫疗法的效果。同时需要对PD⁃1/PD⁃L1抑制剂进行更长临床随访的其他临床试验来确定其在一线治疗中局部晚期和mUC治疗中的作用,并确定其在新辅助治疗和/或辅助治疗中的潜力。最后,用特定生物标志物来预测治疗反应并没有普遍共识,仍然是在实际临床实践中使用免疫检查点抑制剂的主要限制。预测性生物标志物的存在将使得能够在预期的应答者中选择性地使用免疫检查点抑制剂。然而,重复、低效、过时的临床试验设计并不少见,临床试验患者志愿者招募率的显著下降也令人担忧。由于患者志愿者数量有限,因此在肿瘤免疫治疗领域,应将资源优先分配给创新型PD⁃1/PD⁃L1及CTLA⁃4研究,通过额外的支持性基础和临床研究来找出和验证可用的生物标志物。

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