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通讯作者:

顾兵,E-mail:gb20031129@163.com

中图分类号:R446.5

文献标识码:A

文章编号:1007-4368(2022)06-854-07

DOI:10.7655/NYDXBNS20220614

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目录contents

    摘要

    目的:分析2012—2020年广州地区肺炎链球菌抗菌药物耐药性的分布情况及聚集性多重耐药模式。方法:收集 2012—2020年肺炎链球菌感染的临床数据;采用VITEK 2 Compact和MALDI⁃TOF/TOF MS进行初步鉴定,并用奥普托欣试验和胆汁溶血试验再次验证;采用VITEK 2 Compact 和K⁃B法进行药敏谱分析,结果判读参照CLSI2020标准,数据采用WHO⁃ NET5.6和SPSS23.0软件进行统计分析。结果:共收集1110株肺炎链球菌,纳入分析753株非重复分离株,主要来源于痰液标本(73.7%)。感染患者中,男性偏多(69.7%),年龄段主要集中在≤5岁的婴幼儿及儿童(53.9%),科室分布以重症监护室为主 (51.4%)。多重耐药的肺炎链球菌占总分离数的75.3%(567/753),多重耐药株分离率从2012年的66.7%(44/66)上升至2020 年的93.9%(46/49),呈上升趋势(P < 0.001)。美罗培南耐药率从27.9%(17/61)上升至58.7%(27/46),出现明显增长趋势(P < 0.001);青霉素耐药率从 70.0%(7/10)降低至 18.4%(9/49),出现明显下降趋势(P < 0.001);头孢噻肟从 9.1%(1/11)上升至 32.6%(15/46)(P =0.063),但其上升趋势不可忽略,需进一步监测;红霉素和四环素耐药率一直较高。多重耐药模式出现聚集性,最主要为A模式:四环素⁃复方磺胺甲恶唑⁃红霉素同时耐药,占27.3%(155/567),其他耐药模式均在A模式的基础上进一步发展。结论:多重耐药肺炎链球菌呈逐年递增趋势,美罗培南和头孢噻肟为重点监测药物,青霉素出现耐药减少趋势,可作为经验性治疗用药。聚集性耐药模式提示经验用药可能失败,地区性合理使用抗菌药物并定期进行耐药监测是长期任务。

    Abstract

    Objective:This study aims to analyze the distribution of antimicrobial resistance and the mode of aggregated multi⁃drug resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae isolates in Guangzhou from 2012 to 2020. Methods:The clinical data of Streptococcus pneumoniae infection from 2012 to 2020 were collected;the preliminary identification was carried out by VITEK 2 Compact and MALDI⁃TOF/TOF MS,and verified again by Optoxin test and bile hemolysis test;the drug sensitivity spectrum was analyzed by VITEK 2 Compact and Kirby⁃Bauer method,the results were interpreted according to the CLSI2020 standard,and the data were statistically analyzed by WHONET5.6 and SPSS23.0 software. Results:A total of 1110 strains were collected,of which 753 strains were included in the analysis,mainly from sputum samples(73.7%). Among the infected patients,the male was on the high side(69.7%),and the age group was mainly concentrated in infants and children ≤5 years old(53.9%),the distribution of departments was mainly concentrated in ICU(51.4%). Multidrug⁃resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae accounted for 75.3% of the total isolates(567/753),from 66.7%(44/66) in 2012 to 93.9%(46/49)in 2020,showing an upward trend(P < 0.001). The resistance rate of meropenem increased from 27.9% (17/61)to 58.7%(27/46),showing an obvious increasing trend(P < 0.001). The resistance rate of penicillin decreased from 70.0%(7/ 10)to 18.4%(9/49)(P < 0.001). Cefotaxime increased from 9.1%(1/11)to 32.6%(15/46)(P =0.063),but its upward trend can not be ignored and needs further monitoring. The resistance rates of erythromycin and tetracycline have been high. Multi⁃drug resistance mode appeared aggregation,the most important is mode A:tetracycline ⁃ compound sulfamethoxazole ⁃ erythromycin simultaneous resistance, accounting for 27.3%(155/567),other drug resistance modes are further developed on the basis of mode A. Conclusion:Multi ⁃ drug resistance of Streptococcus pneumoniae is increasing year by year,meropenem and cefotaxime are the key monitoring drugs,penicillin resistance tends to decrease,which can be used as empirical treatment. The mode of aggregate drug resistance suggests that it is possible to experience the failure of drug use,and regional rational use of antibiotics and regular monitoring of drug resistance is a long⁃term task.

  • 肺炎链球菌(Streptococcus pneumoniae,SPN)感染好发于儿童和中老年患者,常引起肺炎、中耳炎等非侵袭性链球菌病和脑膜炎、菌血症等侵袭性链球菌病。根据荚膜多糖差异,SPN可分为90多种血清型[1-3]。据WHO报道,每年死于SPN感染的儿童 (5岁以下)近50万(https://www.cdc.gov/pneumococ⁃ cal/global.html),且SPN菌血症和脑膜炎在老年患者死亡率中占比也很高[4-5]

  • 抗菌药物是治疗SPN感染的重要手段,但随着抗菌药物的广泛使用,耐药问题也日渐加重,尤其是 β⁃内酰胺类抗生素(如青霉素等)和大环内酯类抗生素(如红霉素等)的耐药率一直处于较高水平[6-7]。耐药问题的出现常常延缓了疾病治疗,并大幅增加了感染患者的发病率、死亡率和医疗成本[8]。多重耐药(multi⁃drug resistance MDR),指对三类或三类以上抗菌素耐药,MDR的增加进一步加剧了疾病诊断与治疗的难度[9]

  • SPN耐药问题日渐严重是多因素所导致,如诊断不明确的预防性治疗、抗菌药物的不合理使用、精准治疗缺失等[10],而耐药监测一方面可了解本地耐药情况进而调整用药策略,另一方面提示临床经验性治疗方案,合理使用抗菌药物,是减缓细菌耐药问题的关键战略[6]。因此本研究通过分析广州地区2012年1月—2020年12月临床分离SPN的检测数据,了解其分布与耐药情况,为SPN的临床诊治与用药提供相关参考依据。

  • 1 资料和方法

  • 1.1 资料

  • 所有菌株及临床信息来源于2012年1月—2020年12月广东省人民医院、广州市疾病预防控制中心、南方医科大学皮肤病医院的患者数据,包括患者的年龄、性别、标本类型、住院病区、药敏结果、结果报告日期等。研究期间共收集1 110株SPN感染数据,本研究只采纳每个患者不同样本类型培养出的第一株分离菌,剔除重复后,共收集753株SPN的感染数据。

  • 1.2 方法

  • 1.2.1 SPN的分离、培养与鉴定

  • 所有临床样本接种和培养于5%羊血琼脂, 37℃、5%CO2中孵育18~24h后,挑取具有α溶血环的“脐状”菌落,采用VITEK 2Compact全自动细菌鉴定系统或MALDI ⁃TOF/TOFMS(梅里埃公司,法国)进行初步鉴定,并经奥普托欣(Optochin)5g敏感试验和胆汁溶血试验再次验证。本实验标本的采集与接种、SPN的分离与培养均按照《全国临床检验操作规程》[11] 的方法进行,分离菌经细菌冻存液保留于液氮罐,以备进一步研究。

  • 1.2.2 药敏试验

  • 采用VITEK 2Compact细菌药敏分析系统进行菌株的药敏试验,部分药敏采用Kirby⁃Bauer纸片扩散法(Oxoid公司,英国)进行复核,质控菌株为SPN ATCC49619,均按照美国临床和实验室标准协会(Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute,CLSI) 的最低抑菌浓度(minimal inhibitory concentration, MIC)值判断,药敏结果为敏感(S)、中介(I)、耐药 (R)[12]

  • 1.3 统计学方法

  • 利用WHONET5.6(http://www.whonet.org/con⁃ tact.html)和SPSS 23.0进行菌株药敏数据的处理与分析。不同组间分析和年度耐药率时间趋势分析采用χ2 检验和Fisher精确检验,P <0.05为差异有统计学意义。

  • 2 结果

  • 2.1 SPN分布情况

  • 2012年1月—2020年12月共收集到1 110株SPN,剔除重复后纳入753株分离菌数据,年度分离情况如图1所示。主要分离自痰液(555株,73.7%),其次为血液(66株,8.8%)、肺泡灌洗液(59株,7.8%),其他标本种类来源详见图2A。

  • 人群分布方面,SPN感染好发于男性(图2B),男女比例为2.32∶1,男性占比69.7%(525例)。值得注意的是,≤5岁的婴幼儿及儿童占比53.9%(406例),其次为≥65岁的老年人(149例,19.8%),其他年龄层次占比详见图2C。另外,科室分布以重症监护室 (ICU)为主,占比51.4%(387例),其中包括了儿科重症监护室、心外科重症监护室及呼吸与危重症监护室;其次为普通儿科(83例,11.0%)、呼吸科(76例, 10.1%),其他科室分布占总数的27.5%且各占比均小于10%(图2D)。

  • 2.2 SPN的耐药谱

  • 根据CLSI2020耐药折点,如表1所示,临床分离的SPN对红霉素(95.5%)、四环素(91.5%)、克林霉素(92.2%)、复方磺胺甲恶唑(70.0%)等高度耐药,对青霉素(43.0%)、头孢吡肟(36.9%)、阿莫西林 (34.8%)、美罗培南(28.6%)、头孢噻肟(23.5%)、头孢曲松(18.0%)等抗生素中度耐药,对氯霉素 (6.3%)、左氧氟沙星(1.3%)、莫西沙星(0.8%)、氧氟沙星(1.5%)等较敏感,使用利奈唑胺、厄他培南、万古霉素没有出现耐药情况。

  • 图1 2012—2020年年度SPN分离情况

  • Fig.1 The annual isolation of SPN from 2012to 2020

  • 2.3 SPN耐药性的年度变迁

  • 根据以上耐药谱,进一步分析抗菌药物耐药率的年度变化趋势及单种抗菌药物的耐药变迁。如图3A所示,2012—2020年间,多重耐药的SPN共分离出567株,占总分离菌株数的75.3%(567/753),且呈逐年上升趋势(P< 0.001),多重耐药株分离率从2012年的66.7%(44/66)上升至2020年的93.9%(46/49)。对于单种抗菌药物,耐药菌株数过少、年度分布存在偏移的抗菌药物不做分析,如克林霉素、头孢曲松等;完全敏感的抗菌药物不做分析,如厄他培南、利奈唑胺、万古霉素。如图3B所示,美罗培南耐药率从27.9%(17/61)上升至58.7%(27/46),出现明显增长趋势(P< 0.001);2012—2017年青霉素和头孢噻肟的耐药数据缺乏,2018—2020年,青霉素耐药率从70.0%(7/10)降低至18.4%(9/49) (P< 0.001),而头孢噻肟从9.1%(1/11)上升至32.6%(15/46),差异无统计学意义(P=0.063);红霉素耐药率一直维持在较高水平,9年间均处于90%以上,年度变迁差异无统计学意义(P=0.051),四环素耐药水平同样较高(>80%,P=0.910),复方磺胺甲恶唑处于中等耐药水平(50%~80%,P=0.393)、阿莫西林处于较低耐药水平(<50%,P=0.064),差异均无统计学意义。

  • 图2 753株SPN的分布情况

  • Fig.2 Distribution of 753strains of SPN

  • 表1 753株SPN的耐药谱

  • Table1 Drug resistance spectrum of 753strains of SPN

  • 2.4 多重耐药模式分析

  • 基于多重耐药SPN的耐药谱和耐药分布趋势,进一步分析发现,多重耐药株具有一定的耐药聚集模式(表2),其中最主要为A模式:四环素⁃复方磺胺甲恶唑⁃红霉素同时耐药,占比27.3%(155/567)。值得注意的是,其他耐药模式均在A模式的基础上进一步发展,B模式为四环素⁃复方磺胺甲恶唑⁃红霉素 ⁃美罗培南⁃阿莫西林,占比15.0%(85/567);C模式为四环素⁃复方磺胺甲恶唑⁃红霉素⁃阿莫西林,占比8.8%(50/567)。

  • 3 讨论

  • SPN是一种常见的机会致病菌,正常情况下不致病,当机体抵抗力低下或感染呼吸道病毒后,体质虚弱、营养不良等情况发生时,SPN可从鼻咽部侵入黏膜发生侵袭性感染,常导致社区获得性肺炎、中耳炎、脑膜炎、菌血症等疾病,在世界各地儿童和老年人中多见[13-14]。在中国,SPN也是导致婴幼儿和老年人死亡的重要原因[1]。本研究中≤5岁的儿童和≥65岁的老年人为主要感染人群,且≤5岁的儿童感染率达50%以上,说明广州地区儿童SPN感染的问题仍然需要格外重视。SPN科室分布主要集中在ICU,可见抵抗力低下的重症感染患者是SPN感染的主要人群,应密切关注。统计显示男性患者多见,是女性患者的2倍,这可能是因为小儿男性患者早期激素引起的免疫力低下和老年患者X染色体活性降低引起的免疫学差异所致[15-16]。此外,成年男性患者是吸烟的主要人群,在具有免疫能力的非老年人群中,吸烟是侵袭性SPN最强的独立危险因素[17]。由图1可见2012—2018年SPN菌株分离数整体呈上升趋势,2018年后逐年降低,与全国2014—2019年持续升高趋势稍有不同[18]。SPN疫苗是预防SPN病感染的主要手段,PCV7、PCV13和PPV23型疫苗是儿童和老年人SPN预防的推荐疫苗,且PCV13比PCV7血清型覆盖率更广[1],PCV13型疫苗2017年5月在中国上市后,对于婴幼儿肺炎的预防起到更加积极的作用。广州地区2018年后SPN分离率的降低可能与经济发达地区疫苗接种意识的优先普及有关[19]。2019年新冠疫情爆发后,为了遏制病毒传播采取的公共卫生防控措施,也是SPN感染率下降的重要原因[20]。痰液标本分离出的SPN占大多数(73.7%),说明广州地区患者主要为非侵袭性的SPN感染,呼吸道感染仍是SPN感染的主要途径。

  • 图3 SPN耐药性的年度变迁

  • Fig.3 Annual changes of drug resistance of SPN

  • 表2 567株多重耐药SPN的耐药模式

  • Table2 The resistance pattern of 567MDR⁃SPN

  • 抗菌药物治疗是临床SPN治疗的首选方法,本研究所示,SPN对红霉素(95.5%)、四环素(91.5%)、克林霉素(92.2%)、复方磺胺甲恶唑(70.0%)等高度耐药。大环内酯类药物可逆地结合到50S核糖体亚基,并抑制依赖RNA的蛋白质合成,主要耐药机制为核糖体甲基化和大环内酯外排的药物在世界各地广泛使用后,耐药性快速增加[21]。广州地区SPN红霉素(大环内酯类药物)耐药率与全国SPN红霉素总耐药率(95.6%)都处于较高水平,与日本相近[22],远高于美国[23]。周宏等[24] 研究显示,本地区SPN红霉素耐药机制可能以ermB基因介导为主。克林霉素、四环素等与红霉素一样具有很高的耐药性,这3种药物已经不适合作为一线药物用于临床SPN感染治疗。中度耐药的有青霉素(43.0%)、头孢吡肟 (36.9%)、阿莫西林(34.8%)、头孢噻肟(23.5%)、美罗培南(28.6%)等。青霉素缺乏2018年前的药敏数据,后3年的总耐药率为43.0%,年度耐药率从70.0%降低至18.4%,捷克共和国[25]、日本[26]、美国[27] 等也出现了青霉素耐药性下降的情况,这可能与PCV13疫苗的普及和青霉素使用的降低有关。头孢噻肟2018—2020年度耐药率从9.1%上升至32.6%(P=0.063),虽差异无统计学意义,但仍有上升趋势,需进一步监测及重点关注。总体而言,青霉素类及头孢菌素类抗生素对SPN敏感性较高,都可继续作为临床推荐药物使用。碳青霉烯类抗生素因其具有对β⁃内酰胺酶稳定且毒性低等特点,已经成为治疗严重细菌感染最主要的抗菌药物之一。广州地区厄他培南有很好的敏感性,而美罗培南耐药率出现逐年增高的现象,9年间耐药率从29.5%上升至58.7%,应密切关注碳青霉烯类抗菌药使用及耐药性问题,积极进行耐药菌株血清型分析与同源性监测,探究是否出现非PCV13血清型菌株导致的耐药性增高问题[28]。万古霉素、利奈唑胺等不是临床治疗SPN的常用药物,虽高度敏感,但万古霉素具有肾毒性[29],利奈唑胺有骨髓抑制的作用[30],这类抗生素不推荐在儿童SPN感染中使用。氟喹诺酮类药物如左氧氟沙星、莫西沙星等敏感性较高,且具有对耐药性肺炎球菌活性强、抗菌谱广、给药方便等特点适合临床经验性治疗,且单一用药效果好[31]

  • 在过去的20年里,由于抗生素的广泛使用及滥用,耐多药SPN在世界范围内传播[32-33]。广州地区MDR分离株总分离率为75.3%,9年间增长了27.2%。亚洲国家2012—2017年菌株中MDR的检出率,中国76.0%、韩国64.0%、新加坡17.9%,菲律宾最低3.1%[34],日本2018—2019年检出率69.0%[35]。广州地区MDR菌株分离率处于较高水平,且分离率呈年度增长趋势,多重耐药问题不容小觑。由表2可见,在MDR分离株中,多重耐药模式出现聚集性,最主要为A模式:四环素⁃复方磺胺甲恶唑⁃红霉素同时耐药,阿莫西林与美罗培南在多药耐药组合中也多见,其他耐药模式均在A模式的基础上进一步发展。与泉州市SPN多重耐药模式红霉素⁃克林霉素⁃四环素⁃复方新诺明[36]、非洲地区埃塞俄比亚耐药模式青霉素⁃红霉素⁃克林霉素⁃四环素等模式相近[37],欧洲国家最常见头孢菌素类、大环内酯类、氟喹诺酮类、青霉素和四环素类耐药[38],应降低这几种抗生素同时使用的情况。这对指导临床合理用药、降低联合用药导致的耐多药问题很有意义。但多重耐药模式仅限于本研究成果,目前只包括广州3家单位的SPN感染情况,同时耐药机制并没有非常明确,涵盖的研究区域不够全面,目前本团队正在联合多中心、多区域进行SPN持续性耐药监测,力求获得更准确的流行病学成果,基于多中心基础和机制研究来探索SPN耐药模式和可能的耐药机制。

  • 本研究结果可为广州地区SPN经验性药物治疗提供参考。不单独使用红霉素、四环素、克林霉素等药物,关注美罗培南耐药趋势的发展,合理指导碳青霉烯类抗生素使用,继续监测青霉素耐药的变化趋势,探究敏感性升高的原因,同时不可忽视头孢噻肟耐药继续增长的可能。广州地区青霉素类及头孢菌素类抗生素可为经验性用药选择。氟喹诺酮类药物可作为首选推荐药物。后续需结合血清型检测,分析当地SPN血清型分布情况,合理使用抗生素、优化联合治疗过程,关注多药耐药菌的发展,同时形成更好的抗生素监测和SPN感染预防体系。

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  • 参考文献

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