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通讯作者:

占强,E-mail:zhanq33@163.com

中图分类号:R735.2

文献标识码:A

文章编号:1007-4368(2022)06-880-06

DOI:10.7655/NYDXBNS20220619

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目录contents

    摘要

    胃癌的早期诊治对患者的预后至关重要,研究胃癌前病变发生机制有望实现对胃癌的早期防治。解痉多肽表达化生(spasmolytic polypeptide expressing metaplasia,SPEM)是近年发现的重要的胃癌前病变,与胃癌的发生关系密切,但具体调控机制不详。本文着重就SPEM的发生、发展过程及与胃癌发病之间关系的研究现状做一综述,为胃癌发病机制的研究提供新思路,为胃癌早期防治提供新理论。

    Abstract

    The early diagnosis and treatment of gastric cancer are essential for the prognosis of patients,and they can be realized by exploring the mechanism of precancerous lesions. Spasmolytic polypeptide expressing metaplasia(SPEM)is an important precancerous lesion of gastric cancer,which is closely related to the occurrence of gastric cancer. However,the specific regulatory mechanism remains unclear. This article focuses on the pathogenesis and development of SPEM as well as its relationship with gastric cancer, which may provide new ideas for the pathogenesis,early prevention and treatment of gastric cancer.

  • 胃癌是最常见的消化系统肿瘤之一,是全球范围内癌症相关死亡的第三大原因,也是严重危害我国居民健康的恶性疾病[1]。胃癌的发病机制尚未明确,目前较为公认的发病模式为幽门螺杆菌(Helicobacter pylori,Hp)诱发的萎缩性胃炎—肠上皮化生 —异型增生—癌。近年来发现,解痉多肽表达化生 (spasmolytic polypeptide expressing metaplasia,SPEM) 作为另一种胃黏膜化生方式也可进展至异型增生,最终导致胃癌。本文重点论述SPEM的起源、发生、发展来探究其与胃癌形成的关系。

  • 1 SPEM的表面标志物

  • SPEM作为与肠型胃癌相关的第二种化生,也被称为假幽门腺化生、黏液化生或胃体胃窦化[2-4]。 SPEM可促进周围上皮细胞向损伤面迁移覆盖,并分泌细胞因子抵抗急性或慢性炎症。最近研究发现,酸性胃分泌物的腐蚀作用可能会使胃黏膜损伤变得更加复杂,胃体愈合溃疡边缘存在SPEM细胞是应对局部损伤的关键性反应[5]

  • 最初研究发现,SPEM表达三叶因子2(trefoil factor 2,TFF2)、黏蛋白6(mucin 6,MUC6),随着研究不断深入,更多相关的生物学标志物相继出现[6]。研究发现,Hp感染6周后,蒙古沙土鼠胃腺体的底部出现加纳籽凝集素Ⅱ(griffoniasimplicifolia lectin Ⅱ,GSⅡ)阳性的SPEM[7]。CD44作为实体肿瘤细胞的标志物之一,其蛋白亚型CD44v9在SPEM和胃肿瘤组织中的表达显著上调,可能通过增强氧化应激防御促进肿瘤发生[8-9]。聚集素蛋白(Clusterin)是一种普遍表达的分泌型糖蛋白,参与组织重塑、分化、细胞保护和抗凋亡等多种细胞过程。研究显示,Clusterin仅在正常小鼠胃的腺体峡部低表达,而在不同小鼠诱导模型表型相似的SPEM谱系中均有显著表达,可作为小鼠和人类SPEM谱系的标志物[10]。性别决定区Y框蛋白9(SRY⁃related high mobility group⁃ box gene9,SOX9)被认为是一些组织的干/祖细胞标志物,研究报道,SOX9在小鼠和人胃体的颈部/峡部弱表达,而在黏液化生和胃癌中表达明显上调[11-12]。人附睾蛋白4(human epididymis protein 4,HE4)是由WFDC2基因编码的蛋白水解酶抑制剂,正常胃窦中不表达,在小鼠SPEM以及人类SPEM、肠化生和胃癌中均有强烈表达,且HE4已被证实可在胃癌中促进癌细胞浸润和增殖[13-14]。T淋巴细胞分化蛋白2(myelin and lymphocyte protein 2,MAL2)是囊泡运输所必需的蛋白质,有研究构建了小鼠主细胞和SPEM的体外细胞模型,该模型的表达和增殖特征与体内主细胞和SPEM细胞谱系相似,其基因谱显示MAL2是1种新的SPEM谱系标志,也是第1个在SPEM中发现的表达上调的运输蛋白[15]。最新研究表明,水通道蛋白5(aquaporin 5,AQP5) 是1种新的SPEM细胞谱系特异性标志物,预示着更高的胃癌风险[16] (表1)。

  • 2 SPEM的细胞起源

  • 2.1 主细胞转分化假说

  • 研究发现,通过他莫西芬诱导小鼠急性SPEM模型,施加5⁃FU抑制干细胞增殖活性后,他莫西芬仍可诱导SPEM发生,且SPEM最先出现在腺底部[19-20],与主细胞的位置重叠,推测两者可能有相关性。进一步又有实验通过壁细胞毒性药物L⁃635/DMP⁃777诱导小鼠急性SPEM模型后,应用谱系追踪技术发现, SPEM表达主细胞标志物Mist1且主要分布于腺管基底部,因而提出了主细胞转分化假说[4]。急性或慢性损伤后部分主细胞可能保留或可被重新激活以获得复制能力,能够转分化为SPEM细胞以促进胃黏膜修复,这一过程包括主细胞分泌结构的破坏和转录谱改变,并伴随TFF2、MUC6和CD44v9上调[21-22]

  • 表1 SPEM的标志物

  • Table1 Specific markers for SPEM

  • 然而也有研究发现,急性SPEM模型中腺体增殖活性区域主要在峡部,而出现SPEM的腺体底部的增殖活性很低或几近消失,这似乎与主细胞转分化理论相悖[3]。另一方面,急性SPEM在2周内完全可逆,不表达CD44,也缺乏阿辛蓝阳性黏液,没有在干细胞水平上引起永久性的重新编程,其性质似乎不同于经典SPEM。且目前主细胞来源假说理论大部分都是基于急性SPEM动物模型的研究结果,因此主细胞转分化假说尚存在一定争议[323],需要进一步研究证实。

  • 2.2 干细胞分化假说

  • 研究发现主细胞并非SPEM发生的必要条件, Mist1不仅表达于成熟主细胞,同样也表达于峡部干细胞[24]。SPEM急性模型中主细胞缺失后仍然可以诱导SPEM化生,然而通过构建SPEM慢性模型发现,SPEM细胞产生于腺体上部并向底部移行至主细胞区域,同时表达干细胞标志。急性SPEM仅代表了颈黏液细胞在主细胞丢失后的代偿性增生过程,真正的SPEM起源于峡部干细胞,因而提出了干细胞起源假说[25]。在慢性炎症条件下,峡部干细胞转化成“前体SPEM细胞”,再进一步分化成为成熟SPEM细胞。该过程与慢性炎症中肠上皮化生、异型增生甚至胃癌有着密切的联系[26]

  • 2.3 前化生表型假说

  • 美国研究者提出了前化生表型(Pre⁃SPEM)的概念,即同时具备颈黏液细胞和主细胞的杂交表型。该研究收集了18 000多个来自健康和慢性炎症胃的胃底腺细胞,通过单细胞测序进行拟时序轨迹分析,认为颈黏液细胞和主细胞都能通过这种前化生表型最终发展为SPEM[27]

  • 3 SPEM发生的调控

  • 3.1 Hp感染与SPEM

  • Hp感染是胃癌最常见的易感因素,肠型胃癌通常发生在伴有Hp感染的慢性胃炎、萎缩和化生改变的胃黏膜[7]。虽然Hp可以在酸性条件下生存,但它并不能有效定植于强酸性的胃体,需通过两种细菌黏附素血型结合黏附素(blood⁃group⁃antigen⁃bind⁃ ing adhesin,BabA)和唾液酸结合黏附素(sialic acid⁃ binding adhesion,SabA)分别与宿主上皮上的糖基化受体Lewis B(Leb)和唾液酸化的路易斯寡糖⁃X(Sialyl⁃ Lewis X,SLeX)结合而附着于胃上皮细胞[28]。动物感染Hp后,胃黏膜发生炎症细胞浸润、小凹增生和壁细胞丢失等一系列变化,随后出现SPEM,其表达TFF2 [29]。然而,Hp如何蔓延至萎缩的胃体及其与SPEM直接相互作用的机制尚不清楚。研究表明,与正常腺体相比,SPEM中的Hp通过SabA与上皮细胞表面扩增的SLeX相互作用,在腺体原位定植更深入。另外,Hp也可以通过诱导慢性炎症促进胃上皮化生修复或分泌毒素(如CagA)影响上皮分化,间接地促进SPEM在整个胃中的扩散[30-31]

  • 3.2 细胞因子级联反应与SPEM

  • 胃上皮细胞分泌多种黏膜内信号因子共同调节胃黏膜环境,若分泌失衡则会影响正常胃黏膜的成熟和SPEM的发展。壁细胞是双调节蛋白、转化生长因子α(transforming growth factor ⁃alpha,TGF ⁃ α)、肝素结合EGF样生长因子(heparin⁃binding EGF⁃ like growth factor,HB⁃EGF)和刺猬因子(Sonic hedge⁃ hog,Shh)等一系列关键生长因子的来源,由于壁细胞缺失引起的级联反应及相关细胞因子的分泌已被证明是调控SPEM的关键[5832]

  • 目前已有多种白介素(interleukin,IL)家族成员被证实参与SPEM的发生。研究发现,小鼠受损的胃黏膜和SPEM患者胃组织中有Ⅱ型炎症反应和Ⅱ 型固有淋巴细胞(type⁃2innate lymphoid cell,ILC2) 增多。有研究对免疫缺陷小鼠施加壁细胞毒性药物诱导急性SPEM,发现上皮细胞屏障受损时释放的IL⁃33可作为一种警报信号,通过IL⁃33受体复合物亚单位(suppression of tumorigenicity 2,ST2)和IL⁃1受体协同蛋白(IL ⁃1receptor accessory protein,IL ⁃ 1RAcP)组成的复合物激活ILC2中NF⁃κB和MAPK信号通路,导致包括IL⁃13、IL⁃4、IL⁃5和IL⁃9在内的Ⅱ 型细胞因子上调,加重损伤并诱导SPEM发生[33-35]。而缺乏IL⁃33或ST2的小鼠在急性壁细胞损伤后不会发生SPEM,若再加入外源性IL ⁃ 13又可诱导SPEM的发生[1936]。IL⁃11属于IL⁃6细胞因子家族,通过IL⁃11受体(IL⁃11receptor accessory,IL⁃11RA) 诱导信号转导。IL⁃11的表达局限于壁细胞,壁细胞死亡时IL⁃11在胃中的表达就会消失。研究发现,在野生型小鼠中应用外源性IL⁃11会导致壁细胞急性损伤和炎性细胞浸润,并出现SPEM。因而该研究推测,IL⁃11由将死的壁细胞释放,募集炎性细胞浸润胃黏膜,促进SPEM的发生发展[4]

  • 3.3 巨噬细胞极化与SPEM

  • 根据巨噬细胞接触的细胞因子的不同,其激活途径可分为经典途径活化(I型或M1型)或选择性活化(Ⅱ型或M2型),M2型巨噬细胞参与肿瘤的发生、发展和转移[437]。巨噬细胞耗竭后的小鼠胃黏膜SPEM进程受到阻碍,而缺乏T细胞、B细胞、中性粒细胞和嗜酸性粒细胞等其他炎症细胞的小鼠仍可发生SPEM。动物研究发现,急性壁细胞损伤后释放的IL⁃13可使巨噬细胞活化为M2型巨噬细胞,在损伤后SPEM的产生过程中起关键作用,并且在人类胃黏膜SPEM和化生组织中也同样发现了M2型巨噬细胞的聚集。化生进展过程中,胃黏膜细胞肠化基因如三叶因子3(trefoil factor 3,TFF3)、囊性纤维化跨膜传导调节因子(cystic fibrosis transmem⁃ brane conductance regulator,CFTR)和脑恶性肿瘤缺失基因1(deleted in malignant brain tumors 1, DMBT1)的上调以及SPEM细胞的增殖均需要M2型巨噬细胞[19]。转录谱显示,IL⁃33是巨噬细胞中与SPEM相关的表达高度上调的基因之一[8]。因此,抑制IL⁃33或IL⁃13细胞因子途径可以调节M2型巨噬细胞极化,有可能成为治疗胃肠道癌前病变的潜在靶点[3438]。此外,研究表明至少40%的胃癌中有鼠类肉瘤病毒癌基因(Kirsten rat sarcoma viral oncogene,Kras)活性升高。主细胞中结构性活化Kras的表达也会导致胃黏膜中M2型巨噬细胞浸润,促进炎症反应的启动,进而推动SPEM向肠化生发展[4]

  • 4 SPEM与胃癌的发生

  • 4.1 SPEM扩张与胃异型增生的周期性打击模型

  • 在持续的腺体损伤过程中,SPEM的形态扩张导致胃体的“窦化”,形态上类似于胃窦单位,最初出现在胃体和胃窦交界处,沿着小弯向近端扩展并逐渐扩大范围,称之为SPEM扩张模型[39]。内镜测绘研究预测胃腺癌进展的化生模式,发现沿着小弯的化生扩展模式比其他模式具有更高的癌变风险。一项临床独立研究表明,90%经手术切除的胃癌中可发现SPEM[41]。因此可以推测,相比其他化生模式,SPEM与胃癌的关系更为密切。

  • 周期性打击模型认为,长期存活的成熟细胞可积累和储存突变,最终在不同的组织中充当或者产生能够作为癌症起源的细胞。主细胞是有丝分裂后的成熟细胞,因胃黏膜损伤或炎症而多次发生去分化和再分化,转变为SPEM[39],而主细胞位于化生初始病灶区域,受损时间最长,当突变无限期地积累至足够致癌时,可能诱导SPEM转变为克隆形式扩张从而成为异型增生甚至胃癌的起源细胞[3240]。这一过程与周期性打击模型是一致的,提示SPEM与胃癌的发生高度相关。

  • 4.2 SPEM与微卫星不稳定性(microsatellite insta⁃ bility,MSI)

  • MSI是肿瘤中某个微卫星位点由于重复单元的插入或缺失而出现新的微卫星等位基因的现象,与DNA错配修复基因缺陷有关,是胃癌发生的机制之一。研究通过猫Hp感染小鼠构造SPEM模型,发现SPEM与正常胃腺相比有着更多的MSI。在此基础上,研究者进一步使用人SPEM进行分析,结果与小鼠模型高度一致。同时,研究者还发现人SPEM的体细胞变异性显著增加,其突变负荷几乎是正常腺体的22倍,这与衰老组织或癌前组织的基因分析基本一致,证明MSI是SPEM细胞的全基因组特性。综合上述研究结果可推测,SPEM腺体的遗传不稳定性反映了源头干细胞的遗传特性,这些干细胞可在癌症发生之前积累足够数量的突变,驱动胃癌的发生[41]。此外,SPEM的突变谱和主要分子特征与胃癌细胞均一致,表明SPEM和胃癌有着相同的遗传不稳定性[42]

  • 5 SPEM研究模型的构建现状

  • 良好的细胞模型或动物模型是研究疾病发病机制的基础,目前SPEM发生机制研究进展较为缓慢,主要是因为缺乏可靠的研究模型。SPEM是一个慢性发病过程,Hp感染的蒙古沙鼠可诱发SPEM,是研究人类胃炎和胃癌发生的有力模型[21],但诱导时间漫长,通常需要数月至数年,不利于研究[729]。为了缩短造模的时间,目前使用较为广泛的是化学药物诱导的急性SPEM动物模型。DMP⁃777和L635是目前常用的壁细胞毒性药物,可致壁细胞坏死,常被用于建立动物SPEM模型,且引起的壁细胞损伤在停药后10~14d内是可逆的。DMP⁃777是一种细胞特异性中性粒细胞弹性蛋白酶抑制剂,可以消融壁细胞而不会引起炎症反应。L635是DMP⁃777的手性结构,缺乏弹性蛋白酶抑制剂活性,可在3d内引起壁细胞坏死,并伴有明显炎性浸润。给小鼠服用高剂量他莫昔芬后,也观察到类似的可逆性急性壁细胞损伤[419]。虽然应用上述药物可诱导SPEM,但这种化生过程是可逆的,和人体内真正的SPEM慢性发展过程存在一定差距,因此还需要不断研究去探索与人体慢性SPEM过程相近的研究模型。

  • 6 小结和展望

  • SPEM表达TFF2、MUC6,被认为是肠化生、异型增生和肿瘤的潜在细胞来源,可结合多种生物分子标志物来鉴别。SPEM的细胞起源存在主细胞转分化、干细胞分化及杂交表型转化3种假设,主要受Hp、IL33/IL13信号通路及M2型巨噬细胞极化调控,其在胃体中的持续增殖、扩张及不断积累的基因突变最终会导致胃癌的发生。但目前关于SPEM的发生机制尚未完全阐明,为了更深入地研究SPEM的发生发展,良好的研究模型至关重要,然而应用化学药物构建的急性SPEM动物模型已不能满足当前的研究需求,且SPEM起源目前尚无定论,无法构建稳定的细胞模型进行深入研究。正因如此,SPEM有着广阔的研究空间,研发针对SPEM的诊断及治疗方法将对胃癌的早期发现甚至逆转提供极大帮助,这必将会推动胃癌防治的进程。

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