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作者简介:

李湘君(1977—),女,吉林吉林人,副教授,硕士生导师,研究方向为老年人慢病管理与健康促进,通信作者,lxj@njucm.edu.cn。

中图分类号:C913.6

文献标识码:A

文章编号:1671-0479(2024)02-136-007

DOI:10.7655/NYDXBSSS230448

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目录contents

    摘要

    随着人口老龄化的加剧,认知症疾病发病率呈上涨趋势,而疾病“污名化”对认知症患者带来的影响受到广泛关注。文章通过梳理认知症“污名化”的概念、类型和现状,归纳总结了认知症“污名化”从知识、态度、行为三个方面表现出的特征,认知症的“污名化”对老年人社会参与、就医行为和健康产生的影响,以及目前国际上关于认知症“去污名化”的干预措施、成效和存在的问题,提出建设认知友好社区开展“去污名化”干预时的注意事项,同时关注“污名化”产生的卫生服务利用和健康不公平,以及认知友好社区建设的文化包容问题。

    Abstract

    As the intensification of population ageing,the incidence of cognitive dysfunction(also known as “dementia”)is on the rise. The impact of the“stigmatization”of the diseases on dementia patients has received widespread attention. The article reviews the concept,type and current state of dementia“stigmatization”and summarizes its characteristics in terms of knowledge,attitude and behavior. It also examines the impact of “stigmatization”on the social participation,health - seeking behavior and health of older adults with cognitive impairment. Additionally,the article discusses current international interventions and the effectiveness of existing problems regarding the“de-stigmatization”of dementia. Based on existing research it proposes building a“de -stigmatizing”social environment through dementia -friendly communities,and at the same time focusing the need to address the utilization of health services and health inequalities caused by “stigma”. We also emphasize the importance of equity and cultural inclusion in building dementia-friendly communities.

    Keywords

    dementiastigmathe elderly

  • 认知症又称认知功能障碍(或痴呆症、失智症),《2018 年中国痴呆与认知障碍诊治指南》将认知症定义为一种以获得性认知功能损害为核心,并导致患者日常生活能力、学习能力、工作能力和社会交往能力明显减退的综合征[1]。最常见的认知症类型为阿尔茨海默病,占认知症患者的 60%~70%,其次为血管性痴呆、额颞叶痴呆、路易体痴呆等[2]。世界卫生组织(WHO)指出认知症已经成为迅速加剧的公共卫生问题,到2030年,认知症患者人数预计达7 800万[3]。我国认知症和轻度认知障碍患者合计约五千万人,其中认知症患者更是约占全世界认知症患者的四分之一,较高的发病率给我国政府、照护系统和患者家人带来了巨大的挑战[4]。2014年国际阿尔兹海默病组织(Alzheimer’s Disease Inter⁃ national,ADI)指出预防老年认知症的最有效方法就是早发现、早干预。认知症的形成与社会活动、社会隔绝等可调整的风险因素存在关联,及时干预可以有效缓解老年认知障碍衰退速度,降低认知症发病率[5]

  • 认知症的“污名化”作为一种复杂的社会心理反映,对患者的认知健康构成威胁,出现孤独、抑郁等社会心理问题,甚至出现社交回避和隐瞒病情,影响患者的就医行为,患者生活质量严重下降[6]。认知症“污名化”长期存在于人们的认识中,ADI在 2019 年的报告中指出:每3人中就有2人认为认知症是正常老化现象,甚至有62%的医疗照护服务提供者认为认知症是正常老化的表现,每4人中就有 1 人认为认知症无法预防。“污名化”问题严重延误了认知症早发现、早干预的时机,WHO 指出迫切需要提高公众关于认知症的准确认识,减少对认知症患者的污名和歧视。然而,当前仍然缺乏有效的干预策略改善公众对认知功能障碍疾病的 “污名化”。国家卫生健康委 2020 年发布的《探索老年痴呆防治特色服务工作方案》强调,要增强居民对老年认知功能障碍疾病防治知识的认识,减少偏见与歧视。通过对“老年痴呆”的正名行动,消除刻板印象,积极推动“去污名化”的社区建设,打造没有污名的生活场景,促进认知症患者及时就医,这相当于在健康干预的前端筑起一道守护老年健康的防线。

  • 认知症的“污名化”问题广泛存在,包括 WHO 和 ADI 在内的国际组织和西方发达国家针对该问题开展了大量的研究,我国政府从政策上也强调需要开展认知症“去污名化”实践,然而国内在这一领域尚未形成系统化的研究。本文通过梳理国际上相关研究,探讨了认知症“污名化”的类型、影响和 “去污名化”干预研究进展,总结当前研究的不足之处,并提出该领域未来应关注的研究方向。

  • 一、 认知症“污名化”的概念及现状

  • (一) 疾病“污名化”

  • 疾病“污名化”,又称病耻感(stigma),社会学家 Goffman首次在精神病患者住院治疗的影响研究中引入“stigma”的概念,并将其定义为“极大地玷污某人名誉的特征”[7]。疾病“污名化”反映了患者与周围社会接触的体验[8],认知心理学认为疾病“污名化”包含知识、态度与行为三个方面,对应表现为社会刻板印象、偏见与歧视[9]。社会刻板印象指整个社会对某一疾病固化的认知,这种认知通常是负面甚至是错误的。偏见是在吸收公众的社会刻板印象基础上导致的态度和情感上的反映,包括患者的自我厌恶、焦虑、缺少自信,一般公众对患者的负向态度。歧视则是在偏见基础上的行为反映,主要表现为患者减少日常活动和自我隔绝,以及一般公众表现出避免与患者接触和对患者的社会排斥等。

  • (二) 认知症的“污名化”

  • 国外已经开展大量有关认知症“污名化”的研究,相关研究覆盖全世界 155 个国家和地区,调查了7万多人次,对随访者的调查表明,2/3以上人群存在对认知症的“污名化”认识,并将其当作是人们老龄化的正常现象[10]。认知症多发生在老年,根据生命周期理论,老年人的认知功能会不断下降,然而这一科学理论却在日常生活中被不合理泛化使用,导致认知症存在严重的“污名化”。已有的文献中指出,护士、全科医生、护理人员、家庭成员和照护者、一般公众均对认知症患者存在不同程度的“污名化”[11]

  • 认知症的“污名化”主要可以划分为三种类型:自我污名、公众污名和结构性污名[612]。自我污名 (self⁃stigma),又称内化污名(internalized stigma),指具有污名化特征的人自身产生的反应。当内化的污名影响到认知症患者的家庭照护者时,又把它称为附属污名(affiliate stigma)[13]。公众污名(public⁃ stigma)指社会大众对特定人群存在刻板印象并产生歧视的过程[14]。公众对认知症的“污名化”是一个全球问题,国外大量前瞻性调查研究中均发现一般公众对认知症患者及其家人存在不同程度的 “污名化”,且对认知症的污名存在很大的人群差异。澳大利亚、北爱尔兰、美国等的研究发现,性别、年龄、教育以及公共宣传都是影响公众污名的重要因素[15-17]。社会文化差异导致各国或地区对认知症的“污名化”水平存在差异,已有研究表明亚洲人群甚至欧美地区亚裔人群均对认知症存在更为严重的“污名化”[18]。结构污名(structural⁃stigma)被定义为限制被污名化者获得机会、资源和福祉的社会层面条件、文化规范和制度政策[19]。结构污名对 “去污名化”干预起到情景调节作用,并且被认为是导致污名化群体健康不平等的重要机制[20]。本文还总结了不同类型污名化在知识、态度和行为上的内涵和表现(表1)。

  • 表1 认知症“污名化”类型、内涵和表现

  • 二、 污名化对认知症老人的影响

  • (一) “污名化”与认知症老人的社会参与

  • 疾病的“污名化”与认知症患者的社会参与情况存在交互影响[21]。一方面,认知症的“污名化”是导致该人群社会隔绝和社会排斥的重要因素,影响认知症患者及其家人的社会参与[22-23]。认知相关疾病的自我污名会降低患者的社会活动能力,增加患者的疾病症状[24]。公众污名产生的孤独感和排斥感严重影响认知症患者参与健康活动的主动性[25],存在“污名化”的社区环境妨碍认知障碍老人的社会融入,是影响认知症患者社会参与的重要因素[26]。另一方面,认知功能衰退影响老年人的社会参与能力。认知功能下降是影响老年人社会参与的重要因素[27],已有研究表明约三分之一的轻度认知障碍老人没有社会参与[28]。因此 2015 年 WHO呼吁开展“全球防治痴呆症行动”,包括努力促进 “尊重认知症患者的人权,减少耻辱和歧视,促进更多参与、社会包容和融合”。

  • (二) “污名化”影响认知症老人的就医行为

  • 感知的污名会延迟认知症患者及其家庭成员对外界的求助行为[29],一般公众对认知症老人的回避、标签和恐惧会延迟或阻碍患者寻求治疗的意图[30]。具体来看“污名化”对认知症老人就医行为的影响表现为三个方面。第一,认知症刻板印象表现出的对疾病错误认识,不愿承认认知症是一种神经系统疾病,从而减少了寻求诊断和治疗的行为[31-32]。如南非的一项研究表明,公众将认知症看作来自“上帝/祖先的惩罚”“因巫术而受到的诅咒”,可由传统治疗师治愈[33]。在我国日常社交情境中“老糊涂了”“老年痴呆”的表达方式,让这种“污名”逐渐带有正式规范,并产生一些隐喻,即老年人认知功能出现问题是自然现象,不是疾病,从而延误了患者的及时治疗[34-36]。第二,患者和家庭成员行为表现出的社会隔离通过社会心理机制影响患者的就医主动性[37]。认知症的污名会使患者出现否认或者掩盖疾病,表现出远离社会活动从而影响患者的及时就医[38]。国内相关研究同样发现公众、社区对老年认知功能障碍患者的社会距离、回避等歧视行为,会妨碍患者的就医意愿和就医行为[39-40]。第三,专业医生对患者的污名化会影响遵医行为,延误患者的治疗。专业医生对认知症患者的污名主要表现为认为认知症患者无法对人际交往作出反应,缺乏社会投资回报,对社会没有贡献或成为社会负担等[41]。新加坡的一项调查发现有近一半(48%)的全科医生对认知症治疗的信心不足且对患者存在消极的情绪[42]。专业医生对认知症患者及其家人的歧视态度会妨碍患者的主动就医意愿[43]。医护人员对疾病的“污名化”会带来低质量的医疗保健服务,包括筛查、诊断和治疗不足,甚至导致患者早期死亡,而这一问题在低收入和中等收入国家尤为严重[44]

  • (三) “污名化”间接影响老年人认知症发病率

  • “污名化”不仅降低认知症老人的社会参与水平,影响其就医行为,还严重影响认知症的发病率[45]。柳叶刀痴呆症、干预和照护预防委员会指出,社会隔离是认知症发病的重要风险因素[46],而“污名化”会导致患者出现严重的社会隔离,降低社会活动参与频率。“污名化”还会导致患者缺乏社会支持,社会支持会显著影响社区老年人轻度认知障碍的发病率,较高的社会支持可以减缓认知功能的下降[47]。针对我国老年人的实证研究也发现社会歧视会增加老年人发生认知功能障碍的概率[48]。整体来看,疾病“污名化”问题不仅影响老年人的认知功能,还影响了认知症人群的心理健康,威胁到他们的健康、福祉和生活质量[49]

  • 三、 认知症“去污名化”与认知友好社区的实践

  • (一) 认知症“去污名化”单项干预

  • 1999 年Corrigan等[50] 将疾病“去污名化”干预措施分为三类:教育(用事实和准确的信息消除污名化),接触(提供与认知症患者的互动)和抗议(公开反对偏见或歧视,以抑制消极态度和挑战对认知症的刻板印象)。已有文献中对认知症“去污名化”的单项干预主要从教育和接触两个方面展开。

  • 教育式的干预,包括课程宣讲、表演或演讲,通过教育式的干预可以在一定程度上改善自我污名和公众污名。如英国于 2011 年提出“我有痴呆,我同样拥有生活”的口号,通过宣传认知症患者也可以拥有正常生活降低患者的自我污名[51]。美国的阿尔兹海默病协会开发了一项污名意识和教育课程,课程涵盖了从污名化的影响到挑战污名化的现实场景,通过课程干预改善患者和家人对认知症的态度[52]。另外,通过播放和认知症相关的表演或电影、开展简短的事实演讲等方式,可以改善公众对认知症的认知和态度[53-55]

  • 接触式的干预,包括代际接触和合作表演接触。通过与认知症患者的代际接触和社会互动可以提高青少年对认知症的认识[56]。与患者合作参与代际合唱团、芭蕾舞和管弦乐队,以及视觉艺术项目等,消除公众对认知症的刻板印象[57-58]

  • 另外,从已有的文献资料来看目前尚无针对认知症污名化问题的抗议式的干预研究,这可能是因为担心抗议式干预会导致疾病“污名化”态度的强化[11],但抗议式的“去污名化”会起到明显抑制 “污名化”行为的作用[59]

  • (二) 认知友好社区下“去污名化”综合干预

  • 2017年5月,WHO通过了《公共卫生应对认知症的全球行动计划》,建议成员国致力于改善物质和社会环境,通过建设“认知友好社区”(dementia⁃ friendly community,DFC)促进认知症人群的社区参与,最终改善他们的生活质量。2016年ADI给出了认知友好社区的两个根本目标:降低认知症相关的 “污名化”和认知症患者的赋权[60]。认知友好社区的主要特征包括创造一个安全的社区环境,认知症患者可以参与社区日常生活,能够获得必要的服务和社会支持,并感到被重视和安全[61]。发展认知友好社区的进程应该体现在政策和规划中,并认识到认知症患者患有残疾,有权获得残疾支持[62]

  • 认知友好社区通过教育、接触等综合干预措施实现对社会环境的改造,达到降低认知症“污名化”,促进患者健康行为和社会融入的目标。许多国家和地区通过不同政策措施开展认知友好社区的建设项目,其中日本和英国是较早开展认知友好社区实践的国家。日本2004年在全国范围内开展了认知症的“去污名化”行动,并于 2005 年通过了 《了解认知障碍和建立社区网络的十年计划》,包括为认知症正名,向认知症患者及其照护者提供帮助,倾听他们的声音,设立认知症咖啡馆,设计提高公众对认知症认识的课程等,多种举措促进认知症 “去污名化”[63]。英国已经建设的认知友好社区中同样采用了多种“去污名化”干预,包括通过社交媒体活动、传单和个人活动等方式改变公众对认知症的刻板印象和偏见;创建“认知症之友”,让公众更好地了解认知症的生活方式;改造社区环境为认知症患者提供更好的社会支持,鼓励他们参与社会活动[64]。除此之外,美国、澳大利亚、荷兰、印度尼西亚、加拿大等国家相继通过不同措施开展认知友好社区建设的干预项目,并取得一定的进展。认知友好社区项目的研究报告指出,通过社区传播和理解认知症相关知识,可以降低对认知障碍疾病的 “污名化”;认知症人群可以获得更多的社会支持和发展社会关系的机会[65]

  • 四、 当前研究存在的不足和展望

  • (一) 国内对认知症患者“污名化”的干预研究与实践程度均较低

  • 《国家应对老年痴呆行动计划》的政策中明确指出要建立认知症“早筛查、早诊断、早干预”的综合防控机制,但是国内对“去污名化”认知友好社区的研究还处于探索阶段。上海市是率先开启认知友好社区建设的城市,2019年发布了《上海市老年认知障碍友好社区建设试点方案》,之后上海精神卫生中心老年科(即上海交通大学阿尔茨海默病诊治中心)等医疗机构联合社区医院、社会组织,为认知症患者构建全程、持续服务的友善社区[66]。基于上海的经验,北京、南京、天津、杭州等城市也陆续开始了认知友好社区的探索性建设[67]。整体来看,我国虽然在政策层面已经意识到需要从社区、机构和居民层面加强对认知症的认知,改善认知症老年人的生活质量,加强认知症早发现、早诊断、早治疗,但是相关研究主要围绕认知症的“污名化”现状和认知症患者就医行为问题。上海等地区少量探索性干预试点,对干预效果的研究略显粗略,不够深入和细化。

  • (二) 应关注“污名化”对认知症患者卫生服务利用和健康公平性的影响

  • WHO在20世纪90年代提出了“生活方式疾病” 的概念,随着大众关注生活行为选择对健康结果的影响,健康生活方式的概念开始与预防个体疾病的能力相关联。而“污名化”会给患者带来显著的负面结果,包括影响患者的社会参与,改变其生活方式,以及由于对疾病的错误认识、担心他人的指责或嘲笑等不愿意寻求卫生服务利用。2023 年Wilson等[68] 在研究中告诫人们不要因“生活方式”的污名而无意中加剧卫生服务利用不平等,并呼吁采取必要措施利用当前资源,通过社会环境的“去污名化”降低认知症风险。近年来国际上已经开展了关于疾病“污名化” 对卫生服务利用不公平影响的相关研究,并在慢性非传染性疾病如癌症、糖尿病、心脑血管疾病方面得到证实[69],但是少有关于认知症的相关研究,而国内在这一领域的研究缺如。

  • (三) 应关注认知友好社区建设的文化包容性

  • 国际上通过建立“认知友好社区”开展了大量实践研究,相关研究形成了一系列为认知症正名、促进认知症老人社会融入的干预经验,并揭示了认知友好社区的关键特征在于提高患者参与社会活动,持续获得被重视和安全的感觉[62]。但是疾病 “污名化”与社会文化因素存在较强的关系,而影响文化包容的因素众多,包括社会服务的可及性、语言、文化和社会环境因素等[70]。因此,目前已有的认知友好社区建设经验并不具有广泛的适用性,构建多元文化背景的、多元主体参与的认知友好社区仍是一个亟待解决的系统性问题。我国认知友好社区建设尚处于探索阶段,社会资源、城乡、地域等因素导致的不同社区存在严重的文化差异,需要采取包容性措施构建适合多元文化背景的认知友好社区。建议借鉴国外实践经验,结合国内不同地区的社会文化特征,从社会生态角度识别认知友好社区的关键因素,明确关键因素与认知友好社区建设的作用关系,提出适宜我国国情的认知友好社区建设的概念框架和实践指导方案。

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    • [54] ZHENG X,CHUNG J O P,WOO B K P.Exploring the impact of a culturally tailored short film in modifying dementia stigma among Chinese Americans:a pilot study [J].Acad Psychiatry,2016,40(2):372-374

    • [55] BAILLIE L,BEECRAFT S,WOODS S.Dementia Friends sessions for nursing students[J].Nurs Older People,2015,27(9):34-38

    • [56] DI BONA L,KENNEDY S,MOUNTAIN G.Adopt a care home:an intergenerational initiative bringing chil⁃ dren into care homes[J].Dementia(London),2019,18(5):1679-1694

    • [57] HARRIS P B,CAPORELLA C A.Making a university community more dementia friendly through participation in an intergenerational choir[J].Dementia,2019,18(7/8):2556-2575

    • [58] REYNOLDS L,INNES A,POYNER C,et al.The stigma attached isn’t true of real life:challenging public per⁃ ception of dementia through a participatory approach in⁃ volving people with dementia(innovative practice)[J].Dementia(London),2017,16(2):219-225

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    • [60] ADI.Dementia ⁃ friendly communities:key principles [R].2016

    • [61] LIN S Y.‘Dementia⁃friendly communities’and being de⁃ mentia friendly in healthcare settings[J].Curr Opin Psy⁃ chiatry,2017,30(2):145-150

    • [62] SHANNON K,BAIL K,NEVILLE S.Dementia ⁃friendly community initiatives:an integrative review[J].J Clin Nurs,2019,28(11/12):2035-2045

    • [63] HAYASHI D M.The Dementia Friends initiative ⁃ sup⁃ porting people with dementia and their carers:reflec⁃ tions from Japan[J].Int J Care Caring,2017,1(2):281-287

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