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通讯作者:

孙玉洁,E-mail:yujiesun@njmu.edu.cn

中图分类号:R392.11

文献标识码:A

文章编号:1007-4368(2023)01-100-07

DOI:10.7655/NYDXBNS20230117

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目录contents

    摘要

    肿瘤坏死因子受体超家族(tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily,TNFRSF)通过与肿瘤坏死因子超家族成员相互作用调节免疫应答,调控细胞生存、增殖和分化等。TNFRSF19是TNFRSF家族的新成员之一,主要表达于上皮细胞、毛囊和大脑组织细胞中。近年来相关研究表明,TNFRSF19在调节神经系统发育和维持干细胞干性中发挥重要生理功能。TNFRSF19 在不同肿瘤中发挥截然相反的促癌或抑癌功能,其功能与肿瘤的组织来源密切相关。本文就TNFRSF19的生理功能及其在癌症中的最新研究进展进行简要综述。

    Abstract

    The tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily(TNFRSF) interacts with members of the tumor necrosis factor superfamily(TNFSF)to play fundermental roles in regulating immune responses,cell survival,proliferation and differentiation. TNFRSF19 is a new member of the TNFRSF family,mainly expressed in epithelial cells,hair follicles and brain tissue cells. In recent years,studies have shown that TNFRSF19 plays an important physiological function in regulating the development of the nervous system and maintaining the stemness of stem cells. TNFRSF19 plays diametrically opposite functions of tumor - promoting or tumor - suppressing in different tumors,and its functions are closely related to the tissue origin of tumors. This article briefly reviews the physiological function of TNFRSF19 and its latest research progress in cancer.

  • 19世纪后期,William Coley 发现部分感染了细菌的肿瘤会发生坏死并消失[1]。1975 年,Carswell 等[2] 在基因上表征了导致肿瘤消退的因子,命名为 “肿瘤坏死因子”(tumor necrosis factor,TNF)。直到 1986 年肿瘤坏死因子受体(TNF receptor,TNFR)首次被报道,并发现表达TNFR 的细胞内包含一种新的蛋白质结构域,即死亡结构域(death domain,DD,约80个氨基酸组成),能够募集半胱天冬酶,诱导细胞凋亡[3-4]

  • 目前,在人类中已发现28个与TNFR具有高度同源性的成员,共同组成肿瘤坏死因子受体超家族 (TNFR superfamily,TNFRSF)[5]。TNFRSF 成员的特征性结构包括:半胱氨酸富集区(CRD)[6]、DD及肿瘤坏因子受体相关因子(TNF receptor associated factor,TRAF)结合位点。TNFRSF 所有成员在细胞外区域均包含2~3个CRD。根据TNFRSF细胞内区域是否包含 DD,可将 TNFRSF 分为两类:死亡受体和非死亡受体。死亡受体包含 DD,包括 TNFR1、 Fas、DR3、DR4、DR5及DR6,可通过DD募集并激活半胱天冬酶,诱导细胞凋亡。非死亡受体缺乏DD,通常在细胞内包含 TRAF 结合序列,可直接招募 TRAF 家族蛋白,主要包括 CD40、LTβR 等,参与细胞存活、增殖及细胞因子分泌[47]。此外,不包含 TRAF结合序列的非死亡受体,可作为诱饵蛋白,参与细胞内信号通路的负反馈调节。

  • TNFRSF 成员多由免疫细胞表达,并在免疫反应中发挥重要功能,促进淋巴细胞的存活、稳态以及其他白细胞亚群的维持[5]。TNFRSF 与其配体 TNFSF结合后,激活NF⁃κB信号通路,既可促进炎症反应,也可诱导细胞凋亡、增殖与分化。在癌症中, TNFRSF成员根据不同组织与细胞背景表现出抑癌与促癌双向功能,如CD95(TNFRSF6)在横纹肌肉瘤中通过诱导细胞凋亡发挥抑癌功能[8],CD95 通过 NF⁃κB、ERK和caspase⁃8等通路促进乳腺癌细胞系的迁移与侵袭,发挥促癌功能[9]

  • TNFRSF19(TNF receptor superfamily 19,TROY, TAJ)是TNFRSF 家族的新成员,胞内区无DD,属于非死亡受体。但其细胞内存在TRAF2结合序列,可激活 NF⁃κB 信号通路,诱导细胞凋亡。TNFRSF19 具有独特的表达分布与功能,即在气道上皮和脑组织中高表达,但在脾脏、胸腺等主要的淋巴组织中不表达,因而在免疫系统中不发挥功能。目前已知 TNFRSF19主要在神经系统发育和毛囊发育中发挥生理功能。在癌症中TNFRSF19具有促癌与抑癌双向功能,如在胶质瘤[10-11]、鼻咽癌[12] 中具有较强的促癌功能,但在肺癌中发挥抑癌效应[13]

  • 本文简要概述了TNFRSF19在正常组织和癌症中的功能及机制,提出了有潜力的研究方向,有助于进一步认识和探讨TNFRSF家族成员在非免疫系统中的重要功能。

  • 1 TNFRSF19膜蛋白的结构、表达与配体

  • 1.1 TNFRSF19结构

  • TNFRSF19 是肿瘤坏死因子受体超家族成员,又称为 TROY、TAJ、TAJ⁃alpha、TRADE。TNFRSF19 蛋白分子量为45 kDa,是由416个氨基酸残基组成的Ⅰ型跨膜蛋白[14]。TNFRSF19的胞外区,有1个作为信号肽的疏水区域(第1~29号氨基酸),在其之后为两个半 CRD 区(第 30~168 号氨基酸),跨膜区是由25个氨基酸构成的疏水区域(第169~193号氨基酸),胞内C端由223个氨基酸构成(第194~416号氨基酸)。CRD区作为TNFRSF成员细胞外区域的特征性结构,是其配体 TNFSF 的结合区。然而,目前尚未发现 TNFRSF19 的配体。TNFRSF19 的胞内区并没有DD结构域,但存在TRAF2结合序列(TLQE,第276~279号氨基酸)[15-16],可激活NF⁃κB信号通路及JNK途径,从而诱导caspase非依赖性细胞死亡。

  • 1.2 TNFRSF19表达分布

  • TNFRSF19在胚胎期高度表达于脑和上皮组织 (皮肤、细支气管上皮、胃上皮、结膜、耳蜗、舌)[17],出生后则主要表达于气道上皮、毛囊和脑等组织。但是,未检测到TNFRSF19在脾脏、胸腺等主要淋巴组织表达,提示其很可能不参与免疫调节。目前, TNFRSF19 在神经系统中的研究较为广泛,其特异性地高表达于神经干细胞、星形胶质细胞,在神经元的表达量极少[18],整个胚胎发育期在嗅神经层持续表达,出生后在嗅球小球层有表达。

  • 1.3 TNFRSF19的配体

  • 1999 年 Hu 等[16] 首次研究了 TNFRSF19 潜在的配体及其表达分布,并依据流式细胞术(FACS)结合酶联免疫吸附实验(ELISA)提出,在 Raji 细胞、 GM847 细胞、293 细胞和 K562 细胞中可能存在 TNFRSF19的配体蛋白。但是,TNFRSF家族的经典配体成员TNFSF11、TNFSF12、TNFSF13B、TNFSF14、 TNFSF15 及 TNFSF18 等均不与 TNFRSF19 结合,最终未能鉴定出 TNFRSF19 的配体蛋白。2008 年, Hashimoto等[19] 通过免疫共沉淀实验(Co⁃IP)证明淋巴毒素α(lymphotoxin⁃α,LTα)与 TNFRSF19 在同一复合物中,即LTα是TNFRSF19的潜在配体蛋白,但缺乏 LTα与 TNFRSF19 直接结合证据。迄今为止, TNFRSF19依然为孤儿受体,其配体蛋白尚不明确。

  • 2 TNFRSF19在癌症中的功能

  • 2.1 TNFRSF19的促癌功能

  • 2.1.1 胶质瘤

  • 临床数据显示,TNFRSF19 表达随神经胶质肿瘤分级的增加而增加,与患者生存期呈负相关。 TNFRSF19 的高表达刺激胶质母细胞瘤细胞侵袭,增加对替莫唑胺化疗及放疗的耐药性[20]

  • 机制研究显示,PDZ⁃RhoGEF、RKIP(Raf kinase inhibitor)是TNFRSF19诱导的胶质母细胞瘤细胞侵袭和存活的信号效应因子,TNFRSF19 在胶质母细胞瘤中过表达,通过Rho信号通路促进胶质瘤细胞侵袭[1021]。TNFRSF19基因在胶质瘤细胞中过度表达,激活依赖Pyk2方式的Racl信号从而促进胶质瘤细胞的侵袭和转移[11]。此外,TNFRSF19与EGFR相互作用,可激活 NF⁃κB 信号通路,促进胶质瘤的侵袭[22]。抑制TNFRSF19的表达可减缓胶质瘤在体内和体外的生长。TNFRSF19⁃EGFR复合物在调节胶质母细胞瘤细胞侵袭中发挥重要作用。这些研究结果表明TNFRSF19在调节胶质母细胞瘤细胞侵袭中发挥重要作用,为发现胶质母细胞瘤潜在治疗靶点提供了新思路。

  • 2.1.2 鼻咽癌

  • 研究发现TNFRSF19基因是鼻咽癌易感基因[23-25],当TNFRSF19基因在鼻咽上皮细胞中高表达时可与 TRAF 家族成员相互作用,激活 JNK 通路从而诱导 caspase非依赖的细胞死亡。TNFRSF19在鼻咽上皮细胞的异常表达可能导致鼻咽癌的发生。

  • 2018年,Deng等[12] 实验表明,TNFRSF19通过与 TGFβR1直接相互作用抑制TGFβ信号,促进鼻咽癌发生。TNFRSF19 在鼻咽癌中高度表达,是细胞增殖和鼻咽癌发展所必需的。然而,与大多数的肿瘤坏死因子受体不同,在鼻咽癌中TNFRSF19不参与 NF⁃κB激活也不与TRAF蛋白质相互作用。鼻咽癌中TGFβR1与TNFRSF19直接相互作用,TNFRSF19 与 TGFβR1 胞质端激酶结构域结合,从而阻止 Smad2/3与TGFβR1结合和随后的细胞周期阻滞信号转导。TNFRSF19的高表达与TGFβ活性降低、鼻咽癌患者的不良预后相关。

  • 2.1.3 其他癌症

  • 除了胶质瘤和鼻咽癌,临床数据提示TNFRSF19 还与多种肿瘤的发生和发展密切相关。如TNFRSF19 促进前列腺癌恶性进展,提示其可作为前列腺癌的预后标签[26]。在原发和转移性黑色素瘤中 TNFRSF19特异性高表达[27],是促进黑色素瘤细胞生长的原因之一。对骨髓增生性肿瘤(myeloproliferative neoplasm,MPN)的基因芯片和蛋白质组分析发现, MPN 中 TNFRSF19 调控骨髓干细胞的凋亡,在 CD34+ 骨髓干细胞和粒细胞中TNFRSF19持续性高表达[28]。此外,Schön 等[29] 研究发现,TNFRSF19 在结直肠癌细胞系和原发性结直肠癌中过度表达,作为β⁃catenin 靶基因,TNFRSF19 通过 Wnt/β⁃catenin 经典通路激活NF⁃κB信号通路,进而可能参与结肠直肠肿瘤的发展。

  • 2.2 TNFRSF19的抑癌功能

  • 2.2.1 胃癌

  • 2017年,Franzisk等[30] 发现TNFRSF19高表达可能是一种新的肠型胃癌的良好预后标志物。实验证明TNFRSF19在人胃组织不同细胞类型中广泛表达。TNFRSF19在胃癌细胞中的表达比邻近非肿瘤胃黏膜细胞低,TNFRSF19 在肠型胃癌细胞中表达比在弥漫性胃癌细胞中更高。在肠型胃癌中, TNFRSF19 表达降低与整体生存的显著降低相关 (P=0.006)。2019年,Saberi等[31] 发现Wnt信号通路的两个靶基因,TNFRSF19 和 LGR5 参与了胃肠道上皮的生成和维持。LGR5 可激活 Wnt 经典通路,而 TNFRSF19 在 Wnt 经典通路中发挥抑制功能。对 30 例肠型胃癌组织的分析显示,胃癌组织中 TNFRSF19和 LGR5的表达水平呈负相关,TNFRSF19 可能通过负调控LGR5的表达抑制Wnt经典信号通路发挥其抑癌作用。

  • 2.2.2 肺癌

  • 全基因组关联分析显示,TNFRSF19 基因位于 13q12.2肺癌风险染色质区[32]。本课题组研究发现,在 13q12.2 肺癌风险染色质区存在 1 个肺癌特异性抑癌增强子 13q⁃Enh,而 TNFRSF19 是其关键靶基因。13q⁃Enh 增强子可通过形成染色质环上调 TNFRSF19 的表达,有效抑制肺癌特异性强致癌物诱导的正常支气管上皮细胞 DNA 损伤和恶性转化[13]。对临床样本的分析进一步显示,肺癌组织中 TNFRSF19表达水平显著低于癌旁组织,TNFRSF19 的表达水平与肺癌TNM临床分期呈负相关,与患者生存期呈正相关[13]。这些结果表明,TNFRSF19 是一个肺癌抑制基因,但具体抑癌机制尚待阐明。

  • 2.2.3 肝癌

  • 2020年,Guo等[33] 鉴定出一种新的肝癌miRNA (miR ⁃ HCC3),可以通过直接结合 TNFRSF19 和 RAB43 的 3′端非编码区来抑制它们的表达,促进肝癌细胞的增殖和上皮⁃间质转化。但在肝癌中 TNFRSF19的具体抑癌机制尚不明确。

  • 3 TNFRSF19在生理条件下的功能

  • 3.1 TNFRSF19在神经系统中的功能

  • 3.1.1 TNFRSF19参与形成NgR1/TNFRSF19/LINGO⁃1 复合物

  • TNFRSF19 作为 NgR1/p75/LINGO⁃1 复合物中 p75 的替代物,与 p75 在 NgR1 上有相同的结合位点[34]。NgR1/TNFRSF19/LINGO⁃1 复合物同样可以激活Cos7细胞中的RhoA信号通路转导神经抑制信号[35]。研究表明,TNFRSF19 也通过与 RhoGDIα直接相互作用介导下游RhoA激活和Nogo诱导的轴突生长抑制[36]

  • TNFRSF19作为p75的功能替代物,在细胞衰老期可与 NgR1 蛋白相互作用。随着细胞老化,小胶质细胞中NgR1、TNFRSF19和LINGO⁃1的表达增加与神经退行性疾病的发病相关[37]。NgR1/TNFRSF19/ LINGO⁃1受体复合物异常与结节性硬化症及Ⅱb型局灶性皮质发育不良[38]、发育中海马区突触抑制相关[39]。因此,TNFRSF19 是潜在的提高细胞移植治疗中枢神经系统损伤疗效的靶点[40]

  • 3.1.2 TNFRSF19在脑血管发育中的作用

  • 研究发现DR6(TNFRSF21,主要表达于分化神经元和 T 细胞)和 TNFRSF19 参与调节脑血管发育。DR6 和 TNFRSF19 是斑马鱼和小鼠中枢神经系统特异性血管生成的调控因子。在 Cos7 细胞中经 Pulldown 实验证明 TNFRSF19 可自身形成寡聚体,且 DR6 和 TNFRSF19 存在直接相互作用。 TNFRSF19 通过血管内皮生长因子(VEGF)介导激活JNK信号通路,参与脑血管发育的调节[41]

  • 3.2 TNFRSF19在细胞凋亡中的功能

  • TNFRSF 成员受体受到凋亡信号的激活以后,其胞质内的DD便会募集凋亡相关因子启动凋亡程序[42]。但 TNFRSF19 的胞质区并没有 DD。2000 年 Eby 等[15] 研究发现,将 TNFRSF19 转染 293T 细胞会导致细胞死亡。其死亡特征包括细胞质肿胀、没有核碎裂的出现、无半胱天冬酶的激活等。2004年, Wang等[42] 又发现,TNFRSF19诱导的细胞死亡还有线粒体膜电位消失、丝氨酸磷脂外翻等特征。以上研究表明,TNFRSF19 可诱导细胞的副凋亡[43]。 TNFRSF19 诱导副凋亡的具体信号途径可能与 TNFRSF 其他成员的信号途径一致,即激活 JNK 和 NF⁃κB信号途径。2000年,Eby等[15] 发现TNFRSF19 能够激活 JNK 信号途径诱导细胞凋亡,TNFRSF19 的胞内段存在 TRAF2 的结合位点,且 TRAF2、 TRAF5 或 TRAF6 显负性的突变体都能够抑制 TNFRSF19 介导的 NF⁃κB 通路激活,这一特点与 TNFRSF家族中其他非死亡受体成员一致。

  • 3.3 TNFRSF19在干细胞中的功能

  • 3.3.1 脑干细胞标签

  • 2018 年,Basak 等[44] 发现 TNFRSF19 + 脑干细胞通过沉默机制进行循环,并通过感知龛位占用率来调节其数量。TNFRSF19是室管膜下区(subependymal zone,SEZ)中成熟神经干细胞(neural stem cell, NSC)的标志物。该研究模型表明,NSC的自我更新能力随着占据相同封闭龛位的 NSC 数量的增加而降低。TNFRSF19+ 脑干细胞与邻近的NSC干细胞的数量符合上述模型。在分子水平上,它们共同竞争有限的心室和内皮表面及其他SEZ细胞类型产生的龛位因子,或者通过NSC细胞间直接接触发挥抑制作用。

  • 3.3.2 TNFRSF19 在人多能间质干细胞(hMSC)分化中的作用

  • 生物信息分析和双荧光素酶报告基因实验证实TNFRSF19是Wnt/β⁃catenin通路的靶点之一。在 hMSC 细胞中敲除 TNFRSF19 基因会下调碱性磷酸酶的活性,后者是Wnt3a诱导的成骨细胞分化的标志物。同时,该基因的高表达可以提高碱性磷酸酶的活性。相应地,敲除TNFRSF19基因或者过表达 TNFRSF19 基因会分别显著提高或降低脂肪形成。 TNFRSF19 在 hMSC 分化为成骨细胞或脂质细胞中具有调节因子的作用[45]。2019 年,Pei 等[46] 同样发现,TNFRSF19作为Wnt信号通路下游靶基因,参与调节 hMSC 向成骨细胞谱系的分化。2014 年,Wu 等[47] 发现骨发育过程中 Runx2 转录因子可结合在 TNFRSF19 启动子区域,上调其转录表达水平。在成骨细胞分化过程中,Runx2 的耗竭会导致 TNFRSF19 表达显著下降,进而调控成骨细胞分化。目前,TNFRSF19调节hMSC分化的下游信号通路尚不明确。

  • 3.3.3 胃、小肠与肾干细胞标签

  • 2013年,Fafilek 等[48] 发现分化的TNFRSF19+ 胃干细胞作为储备干细胞,可产生胃上皮的所有细胞系。TNFRSF19 阳性的干细胞亚群能够补充整个胃单位,本质上是作为静止的储备干细胞。此外, TNFRSF19在小肠正常干细胞中与LGR5(leucine⁃rich repeat ⁃containing G ⁃protein coupled receptor 5)直接相互作用,形成TNFRSF19、LGR5、LRP6、Frizzeld四元复合体,抑制LRP6的磷酸化,进而抑制Wnt信号通路。2017年,Schutgens等[49] 发现TNFRSF19是小鼠肾脏发育过程中上皮祖细胞/肾干细胞的标签,在成年肾脏细胞的更新中也发挥重要作用。

  • 3.4 TNFRSF19在毛囊发育中的功能

  • 2019 年,Lim 等[50] 发现化疗药物环磷酰胺可诱导小鼠皮肤 TNFRSF19 mRNA 高表达,从而引起脱发。2008 年,Johanna 等[51] 研究表明 XEDAR 和 TNFRSF19信号通路在毛囊发育的起始阶段具有相同功能,具有功能冗余性。XEDAR(TNFRSF27,主要表达于外胚层衍生物、胚胎毛囊)是另一种 EDA 皮肤特异性受体,作用于EDA 介导的NF⁃κB激活。在XEDAR或TNFRSF19单基因敲除小鼠中,无明显异常的皮肤附属器表型。这可能与 TNFRSF19 和 XEDAR 在胞外 TNFR 域中存在 55%的序列同源性有关。此外,TNFRSF19和XEDAR都缺乏胞内死亡域,并都可与TRAF6结合。因此,在皮肤附属器发育过程中,TNFRSF19和XEDAR可能具有冗余补偿功能,当 XEDAR 缺陷时,TNFRSF19 突变体的脱发表型可能会加重,这种推测有待进一步研究。

  • 4 结语

  • 综上所述,TNFRSF19 这一肿瘤坏死因子受体超家族中的独特成员,具有重要的生理和病理功能,尤其是它既可抑癌又可促癌的独特性,使其日益受到肿瘤生物学研究者和医学工作者的关注。目前,尽管对于TNFRSF19蛋白质的功能已有一定的认知,但对其在癌症和干细胞等领域的认识还处于探索阶段,未来对于TNFRSF19的研究,需要更多关注以下几个方面:①进一步确认TNFRSF19在不同肿瘤中的抑癌或促癌功能;②通过分析确定不同细胞谱系中蛋白的互作图谱,探讨不同的细胞背景如何影响 TNFRSF19 的功能;③寻找并确定 TNFRSF19的配体蛋白;④探讨TNFRSF19激活下游信号通路的机制和多样性;⑤TNFRSF19 对组织干细胞的调控功能与其促癌和抑癌功能之间的联系。相信随着对TNFRSF19蛋白研究的不断深入,将进一步丰富TNFRSF家族成员在人类疾病尤其是恶性肿瘤中的功能与机制,为探索疾病的发病机理和新的治疗策略提供有价值的实验和理论依据。

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