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中图分类号:R739.4

文献标识码:A

文章编号:1007-4368(2023)01-107-06

DOI:10.7655/NYDXBNS20230118

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目录contents

    摘要

    血管拟态(vasculogenic mimicry,VM)是在肿瘤组织中由于肿瘤细胞通过自身变形、迁移、基质重塑等过程而形成的类似于血管网络的管道结构。脑胶质瘤是颅内最常见的原发性恶性肿瘤,其突出特点是高度血管化,但抗血管生成靶向治疗在胶质瘤的临床应用中并未获得令人满意的疗效,VM可能是导致这一结果的重要原因。虽然胶质瘤中VM形成的分子机制仍然不清,但越来越多的研究表明其与肿瘤微环境密切相关。本文就近年来VM在胶质瘤中的发现,肿瘤微环境对脑胶质瘤 VM形成的影响以及其对胶质瘤治疗的药理学意义进行综述,探讨目前的研究进展,并对未来的发展方向进行展望。

    Abstract

    Vasculogenic mimicry(VM)is a vascular network -like pipeline structure formed by tumor cells through deformation, migration,and matrix remodeling. Glioma is the most common primary malignant tumor in the brain,which is characterized by high vascularization. However,antiangiogenic therapy has not achieved the expected results in the clinical application of glioma,which may be caused by VM. Although its detailed molecular mechanism is unclear,accumulating evidences showed that the tumor microenvironment plays an important role in the development of glioma VM. Here,we reviewed the recent progresses in the influence of tumor microenvironment on VM formation and its pharmacological significance in the treatment of glioma. We also raise some issues that should be focused on in future research.

  • 脑胶质瘤是神经系统中最常见的原发性恶性肿瘤,即使采用外科手术结合放化疗的综合治疗手段,恶性胶质瘤患者的平均生存时间也仅有 13~15 个月[1]。恶性胶质瘤的突出特征是侵袭性生长和微血管增生并伴随高度血管化。胶质瘤的生长和侵袭转移均依赖于血管生成,且其恶性程度及预后与瘤体内血管密度高度相关[2]。因此,抗血管生成已经成为一种很有潜力的治疗策略。目前临床上胶质瘤的治疗多采用以靶向血管内皮为主的药物如贝伐单抗等,但大量的临床实验结果表明这类药物无法延长患者的总生存率,治疗效果远不如预期[3-4],提示肿瘤血管化机制的复杂性。血管拟态的发现为研究肿瘤血管化提供了新的视野。

  • 1 胶质瘤中的血管拟态(vasculogenic mimicry,VM)

  • 1999年Maniotis等[5] 在对高侵袭性人眼葡萄膜黑色素瘤的研究中发现,黑色素瘤中存在过碘酸⁃希夫(periodic acid⁃Schiff staining,PAS)染色呈阳性、内皮特异性标志 CD34 染色呈阴性的血管样管道,表明这些管道缺乏通常生成血管所必须的血管内皮细胞,故推测其是肿瘤细胞通过自身变形和细胞外基质重塑而形成。这是首次鉴定出不依赖于内皮细胞而形成的肿瘤内微循环结构,是不同于经典血管生成的肿瘤血供方式,被命名为 VM。目前认为 VM 应具有以下基本特征:①呈 PAS 染色阳性且内皮细胞标志 CD31 或 CD34 染色阴性;②VM 通道由肿瘤细胞构成而不是由内皮细胞构成;③VM 通道内有血液流通,可为肿瘤供血;④VM中的肿瘤细胞表达多能干细胞表型[6-7]。迄今发现肿瘤中有两种不同类型的VM,即管型和图案样基质型。管型VM 是由模拟内皮细胞的肿瘤细胞形成的中空、有灌注的管型通道。而图案样基质型VM不包含连续的管腔,且在形态上或拓扑学上与经典的血管几乎无相似之处[8]

  • 2005年Yue等[9] 首次报道在胶质瘤中发现图案样基质型 VM。2010 年 El Hallani 等[10] 报道了脑胶质瘤中管型VM的存在。随后根据临床样本的研究证实,脑胶质瘤存在内皮细胞内衬的血管且与 VM 相互连接。VM 与胶质瘤病理级别相关,并且与胶质瘤患者的不良预后及肿瘤的转移和复发都呈显著相关性[11]

  • 2 肿瘤微环境与VM

  • 肿瘤微环境(tumor micro⁃environment,TME)是指肿瘤细胞存在的周围微环境,包括所有非癌宿主细胞如免疫细胞、成纤维细胞、内皮细胞、炎性细胞等,以及非细胞成分如细胞外基质、细胞因子、细胞外囊泡等[12]。TME 与正常的内环境不同,具有缺氧、低pH、间质高压、血管高渗透性及炎症反应等特点。在肿瘤生长的过程中,肿瘤细胞和 TME 的组成部分之间会发展出一种动态的相互关系,以支持肿瘤细胞的发生、发展、侵袭和转移,而这种动态相互关系在VM形成中也起着不可或缺的作用[13-14]。在以下的部分,将探讨TME是如何影响胶质瘤VM的形成。

  • 2.1 缺氧参与介导VM

  • 缺氧是肿瘤微环境最典型的特征,也是肿瘤细胞恶化的重要因素。肿瘤内缺氧可激活多种信号通路,进而引起肿瘤细胞转移、血管生成、免疫逃逸等一系列变化[15]。缺氧使肿瘤微环境中高度恶性的肿瘤细胞塑形性和分化潜能明显提高,并选择性表达某些血管内皮细胞相关基因如血管内皮钙黏蛋白(vascular endothelial cadherin,VE⁃Cadherin)等参与 VM 的形成。在缺氧条件下,缺氧诱导因子 (hypoxia⁃inducible factor,HIF)包括HIF⁃1α和HIF⁃2α 通过与启动子中的缺氧反应元件(hypoxia response element,HRE)直接相互作用,显著上调胶质瘤干细胞中 VE⁃Cadherin 的表达,促进胶质瘤 VM 的形成。 HIF⁃1α还可通过调控其下游靶基因血管内皮生长因子(vascular endothelial growth factor,VEGF)的转录,影响VM的形成[16]。此外,胶质瘤中Beclin⁃1与 HIF⁃1α、VEGF的表达呈正相关,沉默Beclin⁃1可减轻缺氧诱导的VM形成[17]

  • 2.2 缺氧微环境促进肿瘤干细胞分化

  • 肿瘤干细胞(cancer stem cell,CSC)是一类具有自我更新、多向分化和触发新肿瘤能力的极小细胞群。将 CSC 与从肿瘤环境中提取的基质细胞一起注射到小鼠体内会形成更具侵袭性的肿瘤,这表明微环境具有显著影响 CSC 分化为不同细胞表型的潜力。胶质瘤的特征是广泛的组织缺氧,而影响胶质瘤干细胞(glioma stem cell,GSC)表型的最突出的非细胞自主因素之一是肿瘤微环境中缺氧的存在。研究表明,在缺氧条件下,CD133的表达增加,提示周围缺氧生态位增强了GSC 的干性[18]

  • 能够形成VM的肿瘤细胞表现出高度可塑性和胚胎样表型,并有内皮细胞相关基因的表达,提示CSC 与 VM 形成细胞之间密切相关。Ricci⁃Vitiani 等[19] 和 Wang等[20] 首先证实GSC 在有利于内皮细胞分化的条件下能够转分化为具有内皮表型和功能的细胞,且参与肿瘤血管的形成。El Hallani等[10] 的研究结果表明 GSC 不仅可以表达与血管生成和内皮相关的基因,而且一部分GSC还可分化为血管平滑肌样细胞形成 VM。Wu 等[21] 则进一步证明在内皮细胞培养环境下,GSC能形成VM管腔状结构,且高表达VM相关蛋白。将分离纯化的GSC接种至免疫缺陷小鼠体内可形成移植瘤,且瘤体内观察到大量 VM 形成。目前的研究表明恶性胶质瘤中,血管内皮生长因子受体 2(vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2,VEGFR2)不仅是GSC“干性”维持所必需的,而且是驱动GSC向周细胞转分化形成VM的关键分子。下调VEGFR2基因的表达或抑制其活性能够阻断 GSC 向血管壁样细胞的转分化及体外成管能力,从而抑制胶质瘤VM的形成[22]。还有研究结果显示 VEGF 可以刺激 GSC 上调 VEGFR2 的表达,使 VM 的形成增多,VEGFR2 可通过介导 GSC 迁移及转分化等功能参与 VM 的形成[23]。此外,GSC 自噬时通过活性氧调节VEGFR2的活化可促进胶质瘤 VM的形成[21]

  • GSC转分化为内皮样细胞可能涉及上皮间质转化(epithelial mesenchymal transition,EMT),这在胶质瘤的VM形成过程中也至关重要。在缺氧诱导的 EMT 过程中,相关转录因子 Twist 和 Snail 的表达上调,而上皮细胞之间的紧密连接蛋白 E⁃钙黏蛋白下调,随后 GSC 表现出内皮细胞的特征。有研究表明,缺氧可上调胶质瘤细胞中巨噬细胞迁移抑制因子和趋化因子受体 4 型(chemokine receptor 4, CXCR4)并激活下游 Akt 途径增强 EMT 以诱导 VM 形成[24]

  • 2.3 细胞外基质重塑参与介导VM

  • 肿瘤细胞外基质(extracellular matrix,ECM)重塑是VM形成中的一个重要改变。高侵袭性黑色素瘤能产生黏连蛋白,胶原蛋白Ⅳ和Ⅵ以及纤维结合蛋白,而这些物质构成了VM形成所需的细胞外基质微环境,说明肿瘤ECM重塑参与了VM形成[25]

  • 每个组织的 ECM 具有独特的成分和拓扑结构。成人脑组织的ECM富含透明质酸、硫酸软骨素蛋白聚糖、层黏连蛋白和腱糖蛋白[26]。腱糖蛋白⁃C (tenascin⁃C,TNC)是腱糖蛋白家族中发现最早的一种重要ECM分子,在神经组织中由星形胶质细胞表达释放。最新研究显示TNC与胶质瘤中VM形成有关,外源性TNC能刺激VM形成,敲低TNC则显著抑制胶质瘤细胞在体外和体内中的VM形成,并减少细胞的侵袭和迁移[27]

  • 除此之外,高级别恶性胶质瘤细胞中基质金属蛋白酶(matrix metalloproteinase,MMP)的表达明显上调[28-29]。MMP是一组能降解ECM和基底膜蛋白的蛋白溶解酶家族分子,对 ECM 重塑有着重要作用。大量研究表明 MMP 在多种因子或环境的影响下过表达从而诱导肿瘤 VM 的形成。与 VM 形成相关的 MMP 家族蛋白酶主要有 MMP⁃2、MMP⁃9 及膜型基质金属蛋白酶⁃1(membrane type1⁃matrix metalloproteinase,MT1⁃MMP)。当MT1⁃MMP被上游分子激活,可将 MMP⁃2 的前体形式转化为活性形式。有研究表明,B 细胞淋巴瘤 2 在缺氧条件下可通过影响MMP⁃2与MT1⁃MMP进而影响胶质瘤VM 的形成[16]。层黏连蛋白 5γ2(laminin5γ2)是一种细胞外基质蛋白,其γ2 链在基底膜构建以及细胞黏附、迁移等方面有着重要作用。MT1⁃MMP和MMP⁃2 均促进laminin5γ2链裂解,进而刺激肿瘤细胞迁移、侵袭和VM的形成[30]。Liu等[31] 研究表明,组蛋白脱乙酰基酶 3 通过调控 MMP⁃laminin5γ2 信号通路参与胶质瘤VM形成。新近报道胰岛素样生长因子结合蛋白 2 可通过增强脑胶质瘤中 CD144 和 MMP⁃2 的表达,促进VM的形成[32]。以上研究表明肿瘤细胞表达高水平的MMP等物质,降解层黏连蛋白,重塑ECM,为VM 网络的形成提供空间。

  • 2.4 肿瘤相关成纤维细胞与VM

  • TME为肿瘤的生长提供了“土壤”,而肿瘤相关成纤维细胞(cancer⁃associated fibroblast,CAF)则是 TME 中基质重塑的建筑师[33]。有研究发现,CAF可通过细胞间直接接触、细胞因子分泌等作用,激活信号通路,促进肿瘤侵袭转移、上皮间质转化以及免疫抑制[34]。此外,CAF 还可以促进肿瘤中内皮依赖性血管的形成。有文献报道 CAF 能促进胆囊癌及肝癌中VM的形成[35-36]。而在胶质瘤中,VM结构能共同表达CAF的标志物α⁃SMA和PDGFR[22]。这表明 CAF 在促进胶质瘤 VM 形成方面可能具有尚未被重视的功能。

  • 2.5 肿瘤相关巨噬细胞与VM

  • 肿瘤相关巨噬细胞(tumor⁃associated macrophage, TAM)作为主要的肿瘤浸润炎症细胞,可刺激肿瘤血管生成。在胶质瘤中,TAM数量占肿瘤细胞团的 30%,存在于实质与血管周围[37]。有研究表明大量的巨噬细胞浸润于胶质瘤VM阳性区域且TAM在体外能促进胶质瘤 VM 的形成。Rong 等[38] 研究表明 TAM 通过上调胶质瘤细胞 COX⁃2 表达进而激活前列腺素E2(prostaglandin E2,PGE2)/EP1/PKC通路来促进 VM 的形成。此外,Zhang 等[39] 发现 TAM 还可以通过 PKC 通路增强胶质瘤细胞 IL⁃6 的分泌进而促进VM的形成。这些研究表明TAM通过不同促炎介质参与诱导VM形成。

  • 3 靶向胶质瘤VM的治疗策略

  • 抗血管生成治疗已经作为胶质瘤标准疗法的辅助治疗手段。目前临床上使用的抗血管生成药物主要以VEGF⁃VEGFR信号通路为靶点,包括贝伐单抗、舒尼替尼等,然而这种疗法的益处是短暂的,并没有考虑到肿瘤细胞形成VM的问题。这种疗法不但无法完全阻断肿瘤组织内的营养供给,而且随着血管密度降低,还会加剧肿瘤组织内局部缺氧,进而触发 VM 形成,导致抗血管生成耐药[440]。因此,抑制 VM 形成成为肿瘤血管靶向治疗的新方向。本文在表1中总结了目前已经发现的一些具有抑制胶质瘤VM形成的潜在药物以及能同时抑制血管形成和VM形成的化合物。

  • 表1 靶向胶质瘤VM的潜在药物

  • Table1 Potential drugs targeting VM in glioma

  • 3.1 VM抑制剂

  • 目前研究结果已经发现了一些针对上述胶质瘤VM形成分子机制中的部分靶标所产生的治疗策略,包括应用一些通路的抑制剂、对传统药物的改良等。YC⁃1作为HIF⁃1α抑制剂已被发现能抑制胶质瘤 VM 的形成[16]。自噬抑制剂氯喹可通过调控 VEGFR2的活化进而在体内外抑制GSC形成VM,且其与贝伐单抗合用能有效降低VM形成,从而取得更好的抗肿瘤疗效[21]。此外,通过对长春瑞滨进行药剂学修饰,可促进药物透过血脑屏障,增强其抗肿瘤及抗VM形成的作用[41]

  • 3.2 血管生成和VM抑制剂

  • 最理想的抗血管生成疗法应该能同时抑制血管生成和 VM,双管齐下发挥更好的疗效。一些药物之前已被发现具有良好的抗血管生成作用,最新研究发现其还具有良好的抗VM形成作用。如组蛋白去乙酰化酶抑制剂[42]、雷公藤红素[43]、N6⁃异戊烯基腺苷(N6 ⁃isopentenyladenosine,iPA)[44]等。其中, iPA 抑制 VM 形成的机制与抗血管生成机制不同, iPA 通过抑制RhoA/ROCK 信号,导致肌动蛋白应力纤维分解,从而抑制细胞迁移及VM形成;而其发挥抗血管生成作用主要是通过激活 AMPK通路。此外, Ke 等[45]研究发现体外合成人细胞外基质蛋白 Fibulin⁃3 的变体蛋白 ZR30 可通过抑制胶质瘤细胞中的 EGFR/Akt 和 Notch1/Akt 信号转导以及细胞外 MMP⁃2活化,发挥很好的抗胶质瘤血管生成和VM的双重作用。

  • 4 总结与展望

  • VM的发现改变了以往人们对经典肿瘤血供方式的认知,使人们认识到了肿瘤细胞一些新的生物学特性,也为肿瘤抗血管生成治疗和预后判断提供了极具潜在应用价值的新思路、新方法。从目前研究来看,VM 形成是一个由多因素诱导、多分子参与、多条信号通路调控的复杂过程,其详细的分子机制仍需进一步研究,包括ECM的主要成分在重塑过程中是如何变化的?CAF 主要是通过什么机制影响胶质瘤VM的形成?这对寻找抑制VM的关键作用靶点,筛选有效的具有VM抑制作用的药物,提高胶质瘤的疗效具有重要意义。

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