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通讯作者:

郁金泰,E-mail:jintai_yn@fudan.edn.cn

中图分类号:R749.1

文献标识码:A

文章编号:1007-4368(2023)04-563-07

DOI:10.7655/NYDXBNS20230417

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目录contents

    摘要

    2022年阿尔茨海默病(Alzheimer’s disease,AD)研究领域取得了诸多进展:AD的遗传及发病机制不断深入和革新; 随着β淀粉样蛋白靶向药物的获批上市,AD的治疗策略逐渐从症状修饰治疗转变为靶向调修治疗;关于标志物和风险因素的诸多新成果,也标志着AD领域正在向精确诊断和早期预防迈进。

    Abstract

    In 2022,multiple research milestones have occurred in the field of Alzheimer’s disease(AD). The genetic and pathological mechanisms of AD continued to be deepened and innovated. The rapeutics went through a fundamental transition from symptomatic modification therapy to targeted modification therapy,with amyloid-β targeted drugs gradually moving from clinical trials into real - world application. Encouraging findings on biomarkers and risk factors also marked the ongoing shift toward sprecise diagnosis and early prevention.

    关键词

    阿尔茨海默病机制诊断治疗预防

  • 阿尔茨海默病(Alzheimer’s disease,AD)是一种复杂的多因素神经退行性疾病,也是痴呆最常见的类型,占所有痴呆病例的 60%~70%。最新数据表明,目前全球约有4.16亿人处于AD连续谱系中,其中3.2千万人患有痴呆[1],给社会和家庭带来了沉重的负担。据世界卫生组织(World Health Organiza⁃ tion,WHO)统计,2019 年 AD 的全球社会成本约 1.3 万亿美元,且随着AD严重程度的增加而增加[2]。如果不能建立有效的 AD 预防干预手段,其疾病负担将持续增长[3-4]

  • 2022 年,AD 研究领域在各个方面均取得了重要进展和突破[5]:AD遗传及病理发病机制的认识更为深入;生物及影像标志物的进步不断推动 AD 早期精确诊断;疾病靶向调修治疗药物,尤其是β淀粉样蛋白(β⁃amyloid,Aβ)单克隆抗体逐渐从临床试验进入临床实践;更多 AD 可调控风险因素的发现提高了 AD 的可防可控比例。本文旨在梳理 2022 年 AD领域的最新研究进展。

  • 1 AD的遗传及发病机制研究

  • 继 Aβ40 纤维的真实结构通过冷冻电镜被揭示[6],Yang等[7] 随后揭示了Aβ42纤维在冷冻电镜下的真实结构,发现 AD 患者脑内 Aβ42 纤维呈现出 2 种不同的形态,Ⅰ型纤维主要存在于散发性AD患者中,而Ⅱ型纤维主要存在于家族性 AD 及其他神经退行性疾病患者中。此外,AppNL⁃F模型鼠中Aβ42 细丝的结构与Ⅱ型细丝一致,而体外组装合成的Aβ42细丝与人脑中的任何一种都不相同。Aβ42纤维结构的揭示,从微观角度证实了散发性 AD 与家族性 AD 的差异,提示需重视体外及动物模型与人体内靶点的异质性。

  • 传统观点认为,淀粉样前体蛋白(amyloid pre⁃ cursor protein,APP)的水解异常会导致Aβ在神经元外累积形成淀粉样斑块。但最新研究表明,Aβ首先会在溶酶体酸化不足的神经元内累积[8]。研究发现,神经元在斑块形成之前就会出现溶酶体酸化障碍,这些溶酶体逐渐增多、融合,并与高尔基体和内质网整合,形成 PANTHOS(poisonous Anthos)结构。 APP主要通过内膜系统转运至细胞膜,PANTHOS结构内含有大量APP水解形成的Aβ,导致神经元内斑块形成、扰乱神经元功能并导致神经元死亡,最终破裂的神经元将斑块释放到细胞外。该研究证实,淀粉样斑块形成是一种细胞主动过程,溶酶体酸化障碍是Aβ沉积的上游事件之一,改善溶酶体酸化环境或可为AD治疗提供新思路。

  • Medin淀粉样蛋白是目前已知的最常见的人类淀粉样蛋白,是乳脂肪球表皮生长因子 8(milk fat globule EGF ⁃like factor ⁃8,MFG ⁃E8)蛋白切割产生的、由50个氨基酸组成的肽链,主要沉积在脉管系统中,约97%的50岁以上欧洲人群中存在Medin沉积[9]。既往研究发现AD患者的脑小动脉中Medin淀粉样蛋白沉积显著增加[10],但 Medin 蛋白沉积与AD 的关系尚不清楚。Wagner等[11] 发现,APP 转基因小鼠和 AD 患者中,Medin 和 Aβ共同沉积于血管壁, Medin直接与Aβ相互作用形成异源原纤维加速Aβ 聚集。靶向干预Medin蛋白,或可改善Aβ沉积引起的血管损伤和认知能力下降。

  • 女性 AD 患者脑内 Tau 蛋白病理改变水平明显高于男性[12]。正电子发射断层扫描(positron emis⁃ sion computed tomography,PET)成像显示,与男性不同,女性在认知正常阶段脑内已经出现Tau蛋白病理改变[13],可见女性患AD和其他Tau蛋白病的风险高于男性,但导致该差异的机制仍不清楚。Yan等[14] 发现,X连锁的泛素特异性肽酶11(ubiquitin specific peptidase11,USP11)会导致Tau去泛素化及清除减少,引起Tau蛋白病理改变。在胚胎时期,雌性哺乳动物会随机失活1条X 染色体,以避免X 连锁的基因产物过多。但位于X染色体上的UPS11基因会逃脱X染色体失活,因此雌性小鼠和人体内USP11水平明显高于雄性,会引起更加严重的Tau蛋白病理改变和认知障碍。敲除USP11后,PS19小鼠的Tau 蛋白病理改变、神经炎症、突触和认知损伤均显著减轻。

  • 携带载脂蛋白E4(apolipoprotein E4,APOE4)基因是AD主要的遗传风险因素[15]。Blanchard等[16] 通过对APOE4基因携带者和非携带者进行单细胞转录组学分析,深入探讨了APOE4基因的作用机制。研究发现携带APOE4基因的人群,少突胶质细胞胆固醇运输存在缺陷及髓鞘碱性蛋白(myelin basic protein,MBP)水平下降,胆固醇在细胞内积聚会引起内质网应激、髓鞘合成减少,导致认知障碍。应用促进胆固醇转运的药物环糊精对携带APOE4基因的小鼠进行治疗,可以促进髓鞘形成,改善小鼠的学习、记忆功能。

  • 此外,近期的遗传学研究发现了多个新的 AD 相关基因和有害变异。通过进一步增加AD全基因组关联研究(genome ⁃ wide association studies, GWAS)的样本量,研究者发现了42个AD新风险基因位点,富集分析显示这些位点涉及Aβ和Tau蛋白代谢、小胶质细胞功能及其他AD重要病理过程[17]。但GWAS研究存在一定缺陷,该方法难以发现重要的罕见变异。Holstege等[18] 利用外显子测序数据挖掘 AD 相关的罕见变异,不仅验证了既往 GWAS 研究所发现的TREM2、SORL1和ABCA7基因,还发现了ATP8B4和ABCA1基因的有害变异。以往的单细胞测序研究多关注健康和疾病状态下神经元的异质性,往往忽略了脑血管细胞。Yang等[19] 开发了用于测序的脑血管分离和细胞核提取技术,发现与 AD风险相关的30个基因在人脑血管系统中表达,涉及内皮蛋白转运、适应性免疫和细胞外基质途径。虽然目前已经发现多个 AD 相关的基因变异,但研究非编码区域基因变异的功能一直是一项很大的挑战。Cooper等[20] 使用一种大规模并行报告检测方法,筛选出与AD和进行性核上性麻痹(progres⁃ sive superanuclear palsy,PSP)相关的 27 个位点的 320个功能调控变异,随后使用CRISPR基因编辑技术,对19个非编码变异及其同源靶基因进行了识别和验证。

  • 2 AD的生物及影像标志物诊断研究

  • AD的早期诊断对AD治疗来说至关重要,基于标志物的AD 诊断框架在识别临床前无症状AD 方面展现出一定的优势,推动了 AD 治疗领域的进展。相继发表的两项研究,基于独立的人群队列,分别证实了基于脑脊液和基于PET影像的A(淀粉样蛋白)⁃T(Tau)⁃N(神经变性)标志物诊断框架在识别临床前 AD 患者、追踪认知正常人群疾病进展方面的有效性[21-22]。基于这一方法,Hu等[2 1] 首次在认知正常的中国人群中刻画了AD连续谱系(A+ T- N-、 A+ T+ N-、A+ T N+ 和A+ T+ N+)的分布,填补了亚洲人群 ATN 框架效能的空白。此外,AD 领域一个尚未解决的主要问题是,A+ T+ 但认知正常的个体后续认知功能是否会减退。Ossenkoppele等[23] 在一项大型多中心研究中纳入了 1 325 例认知正常人群,研究发现,相比A+ T-、AT的人群,内侧颞叶和/或颞叶新皮质有Aβ和Tau蛋白病理改变(A+ T+)的人群进展为轻度认知功能障碍(mild cognitive impairment,MCI) 的风险和认知下降的速率显著上升。

  • 由于脑脊液和PET检测生物标志物具有成本高、样本少、侵入性等局限,因此无创的血液标志物测试,成为筛查临床前AD患者更有希望的手段。通过比较多种有筛查潜力的血液生物标志物(p⁃Tau181、 p⁃Tau217、p⁃Tau231、GFAP、NfL 和 Aβ42/40),Milà⁃ Alomà等[24] 发现血浆 p⁃Tau231 最早出现异常,血浆 p⁃Tau231、p⁃Tau217与PET检测到的Aβ沉积有很强的相关性。Ashton 等[25] 则发现,p⁃Tau231 和 Aβ42/ 40 最早出现异常,且只有 p⁃Tau217 表现出明显的 Aβ依赖性变化,并在临床前期与认知衰退和脑萎缩相关,该发现也在其他人群中得到了验证。总之,血浆p⁃Tau231和p⁃Tau217在明显的Aβ斑块出现之前就可以较好地捕捉早期脑内的 Aβ变化,并且 p⁃Tau217 与临床前和前驱 AD 疾病进展显著相关,有望用于 AD 临床前人群的筛选及 AD 的早期诊断。虽然血浆 p⁃Tau181 和 p⁃Tau217 能够较好预测 PET 检测到的 Aβ和 Tau 蛋白病理改变,但 Mielke 等[26] 研究显示,多种合并症(慢性肾脏病、高血压、中风、心梗)都能升高p⁃Tau181和p⁃Tau217的水平,导致出现假阳性,了解这些共病对 AD 血检的混杂效应,对于今后在人群层面开展临床筛查和诊断非常重要。

  • 3 AD的新药研发及治疗研究

  • 继 2021 年首个 AD 靶向调修治疗药物 Adu⁃ canumab 获美国食品药品监督管理局(Food and Drug Administration,FDA)批准上市后[27],Aβ单克隆抗体药物的研发进程不断加快。2022 年 11 月 29 日,研究者公布了 Lecanemab 在Ⅲ期临床试验 Clarity AD研究的结果,指出该研究达到了主要终点及所有关键次要终点。Lecanemab是一种小鼠单克隆抗体 mAb158 的人源化 IgG1,可以选择性结合并清除脑内Aβ原纤维[28],其Ⅱb期临床试验BAN2401⁃ G000⁃201 结果显示,每 2 周静脉注射 10 mg/kg Lecanemab治疗18个月时,受试者脑内Aβ蛋白沉积显著减少,其部分认知测试结果下降较慢[29]。基于Ⅱ b 期试验结果,研究者启动了Ⅲ期试验 Clarity AD,以明确 Lecanemab 的有效性和安全性。Clarity AD 是一项针对AD 早期患者的多中心、随机、双盲、安慰剂对照平行组试验[30],主要终点为临床痴呆评定量表各项评分之和(Clinical Dementia Rating⁃Sum of Boxes,CDR⁃SB)相较于基线的变化,评分越高越严重。关键次要终点为以下各项指标相较于基线的变化:PET 检测的淀粉样蛋白负荷、AD 评估量表14 项认知子量表评分(14⁃item cognitive subscale of the Alzheimer’s Disease Assessment Scale,ADAS ⁃ cog14;评分越高越严重)、AD综合评分(Alzheimer’s Disease Composite Score,ADCOM;评分越高越严重) 以及AD合作研究⁃轻度认知障碍日常生活活动量表评分(Alzheimer’s Disease Cooperative Study ⁃ Activities of Daily Living Scale for Mild Cognitive Impairment, ADCS⁃MCI⁃ADL;评分越低越严重)。结果显示,相比安慰剂组,Lecanemab组CDR⁃SB评分恶化程度较低,淀粉样蛋白负荷改善程度较高,ADAS⁃cog14、 ADCOMS 和 ADCS ⁃ MCI ⁃ ADL 评分恶化程度均较低。此外,Lecanemab 组脑脊液和血浆生物标志物 Aβ1⁃42、t⁃Tau、p⁃Tau181、Neurogranin、GFAP等均有显著改善。安全性方面,Lecanemab导致输液相关反应的比例为26.4%,淀粉样蛋白相关影像异常(amyloid⁃ related imaging abnormality,ARIA)伴水肿(ARIA ⁃ edema,ARIA⁃E)和出血(ARIA⁃hemorrhage,ARIA⁃H) 的比例分别为12.6%和17.3%。由此可见,Lecanemab 可以减轻脑内淀粉样蛋白沉积并延缓认知下降,但也存在一定不良反应。2023 年 1 月 6 日,FDA 宣布 Lecanemab获加速批准[31]

  • 除Lecanemab外,另一Aβ单克隆抗体药物Dona⁃ nemab的临床试验也取得了积极进展。Donanemab 是一种靶向脑内Aβ斑块特定表位(N端第3位焦谷氨酸,N3pG)的人源化 IgG1,在其Ⅱ期临床试验 TRAILBLAZER ⁃ALZ 中[32],接受 Donanemab 治疗 76 周的 AD 早期患者,综合 AD 评定量表评分(inte⁃ grated Alzheimer’s Disease Rating Scale,iADRS;评分越低越严重)的恶化程度显著低于安慰剂组,同时脑内淀粉样蛋白斑块和Tau蛋白的负荷也得到显著改善。随后,研究者启动了Donanemab的Ⅲ期临床试验 TRAILBLAZER⁃ALZ4 [33],旨在评估 Donanemab相比 Aducanumab 在早期 AD 患者淀粉样蛋白斑块清除方面的优势。结果显示,治疗 6 个月后,Don⁃ anemab 组淀粉样蛋白斑块完全清除的患者比例 (37.9%)显著高于Aducanumab组(1.6%),Donanemab 组淀粉样蛋白斑块水平较基线下降的程度(65.2%) 也显著高于 Aducanumab 组(17.0%)。以上结果表明,治疗6个月时,Donanemab清除脑内淀粉样蛋白的能力比 Aducanumab 更强。该研究仍在进行中,后续将公布治疗12个月和18个月的结果。

  • 相比Lecanemab和Donanemab取得的积极进展, Gantenerumab的疗效不尽如人意,其Ⅲ期临床试验 GRADUATE Ⅰ/Ⅱ中,接受Gantenerumab皮下注射治疗的患者,CDR⁃SB评分相比基线的变化分别为-0.31 (GRADUATE Ⅰ,P=0.095)和-0.19(GRADUATE Ⅱ, P=0.300),均无统计学意义。Gantenerumab 治疗并没有达到延缓临床认知衰退的主要终点,在淀粉样蛋白清除方面也没有达到预期效果,因此2022年底该临床试验宣布终止[34]

  • 上述提到的Aβ单克隆抗体药物虽然可以延缓认知下降、减轻淀粉样蛋白沉积,但这些免疫疗法的不良反应也不容忽视,其中最常见是 ARIA。研究表明,Aβ单克隆抗体治疗可以触发 Fc 受体介导的促炎反应和非特异性免疫细胞活化[35],神经炎症的过度激活可能会导致ARIA⁃E,同时引发小血管的损伤破裂导致 ARIA⁃H[36]。为此,Jung 等[37] 研发了一种新型融合蛋白,该蛋白是由Aβ单克隆抗体的单链可变片段与生长抑制特异性蛋白6(growth arrest⁃ specific 6,Gas6)的受体结合域融合而成,故命名为 αAβ⁃Gas6。αAβ⁃Gas6可以通过TAM受体依赖性的吞噬作用选择性清除淀粉样斑块,该过程不会诱发 NF⁃κB 介导的炎症反应或神经胶质增生。此外, αAβ⁃Gas6还可以通过激活小胶质细胞和星形胶质细胞的吞噬作用来诱导 Aβ的协同清除,从而改善 AD 模型小鼠的认知行为症状,同时减少突触消除和微出血等不良反应。

  • 近期 Tau 蛋白靶向药物研发也取得了一定进展。 HMTM(hydromethylthionine mesylate)是一种新型口服 Tau 蛋白聚集抑制剂,其Ⅲ期临床试验 LUCIDITY 包括12个月的双盲安慰剂对照治疗阶段和12个月的开放标签治疗阶段[33]。第一阶段已完成,结果显示,HMTM可以持续改善MCI及AD患者的认知功能,并降低患者的脑萎缩速率[38]。该研究仍在进行中,后续将公布第二阶段的结果。

  • AD发病机制复杂,除Aβ和Tau之外,还有很多其他的治疗靶点。Cummings 等[39] 对截至 2022 年 1 月25日clinicaltrials.gov注册的Ⅰ/Ⅱ/Ⅲ期AD药物临床试验进行了汇总分析,并根据药物靶点和作用机制进行了分类。一共有143个AD药物在研,其中疾病靶向调修治疗药物占83.2%,包括20种靶向淀粉样蛋白的药物、13 种靶向 Tau 蛋白的药物、23 种靶向干预炎症的药物、19种靶向突触可塑性的药物及 44种针对氧化应激、神经递质等其他靶点的药物。

  • 非药物治疗也是 AD 的重要治疗手段,此前有研究指出正念训练[40] 和体育运动[41] 会对认知产生积极影响。然而一项基于585例中老年人的随机临床试验发现[42],正念训练和/或体育运动干预 6 个月,对仅有主观认知功能下降的非痴呆老年人的认知功能并没有显著影响。该研究下一阶段将继续追踪这些受试者5年,以了解正念训练和/或体育运动是否有助于减缓或预防未来的认知能力下降。

  • 除了已经进入临床试验的治疗方法,最新发表的一些研究也为 AD 治疗带来了新的希望。Iram 等[43] 将年轻小鼠的脑脊液直接注入老年小鼠脑内,结果发现年轻脑脊液中的成纤维细胞生长因子17 (fibroblast growth factor 17,FGF⁃17)可以激活血清反应因子(serum response factor,SRF)信号通路,驱动肌动蛋白细胞骨架重排从而促进少突胶质细胞增殖,改善老年小鼠的认知功能。此外,Xiong等[44] 发现,卵泡刺激素(follicle⁃stimulating hormone,FSH)会激活CEBPβ/AEP通路,直接作用于海马和皮层神经元,加速Aβ和Tau蛋白病理改变,损害认知功能,促进AD发生进展。通过FSH特异性抗体或FSH基因敲除阻断 FSH 的作用后,可以挽救 AD 相关病理进展及认知减退。该研究为女性AD高易感性提供了理论依据,也为AD治疗提供了新思路。

  • 4 AD的风险因素及预防研究

  • 在 AD 筛查手段尚未普及、药物治疗效果尚未被Ⅳ期临床验证且治疗费用高昂的现状下,做好一级预防依然是降低AD疾病负担的关键手段。数据显示[45],一些发达国家的痴呆发病率在10年内出现了下降趋势,可能归因于近年来污染物暴露减少、生活方式改善、教育程度提高等因素。最新研究证实,健康的生活方式(包括健康饮食、认知活动、体力运动、社交活动、不吸烟、不饮酒或少量饮酒)可以延长人类寿命[46]、延缓认知功能减退[47]。未来需要更多纵向研究及临床试验明确这些健康生活方式在延缓AD发病进展方面的作用。

  • 目前已知的风险因素,只能减少约 40%的 AD 发生,积极寻找新的可调控风险因素对于 AD 的预防同样重要。Ma等[48] 提出了一个全新的AD可调控风险因素——白内障,研究指出白内障患者的 AD 发病风险显著高于健康对照人群,而及时接受白内障手术治疗,可以逆转这种风险效应。与之类似, Yu等[49] 发现,抑郁可以显著增加痴呆发病风险,积极采用药物或非药物治疗手段进行抗抑郁治疗,也可以逆转抑郁带来的风险效应。这些研究表明,相比之前的预测,预防痴呆的潜力更大。为了实现社会整体疾病的低成本高受益,应该从生活方式、共病管理等各方面推动痴呆的一级预防。

  • 5 总结和展望

  • AD发病率、致残率高,给社会和家庭带来了沉重的经济和照料负担。该领域的研究者一直致力于阐明 AD 的发病机制,寻找可用于 AD 早期诊断的标志物,研发AD靶向调修治疗药物,寻找AD预防新手段。目前该领域已取得了较大的进展,未来仍需要更多高质量的人群队列及基础研究,寻找可有效延缓和阻止 AD 进展的干预手段,降低 AD 疾病负担。

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