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通讯作者:

张梅,E-mail:zhangmei@njmu.edu.cn

中图分类号:R587.2

文献标识码:A

文章编号:1007-4368(2023)09-1307-06

DOI:10.7655/NYDXBNS20230920

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参考文献 20
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参考文献 21
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参考文献 24
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参考文献 27
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参考文献 28
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参考文献 38
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参考文献 41
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参考文献 42
REDDY R,WITTENBERG A,CASTLE J R,et al.Effect of aerobic and resistance exercise on glycemic control in adults with type 1 diabetes[J].Can J Diabetes,2019,43(6):406-414
参考文献 43
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目录contents

    摘要

    运动是糖尿病管理中不可或缺的一个部分,对于糖尿病肾病的防治起着积极作用。运动可以独立于血糖控制,减少糖尿病患者的白蛋白尿,改善糖尿病患者预后。已有研究表明,运动通过改善体内葡萄糖稳态、内皮细胞功能、减轻氧化应激和炎症、调节肾素-血管紧张素-醛固酮系统以及肌动蛋白的生物作用等,改善肾功能。目前指南中推荐的主要运动类型包括有氧运动、阻力运动、组合运动和柔韧性运动,临床上应根据患者个体情况选择合适的运动方式。

    Abstract

    Exercise is an important component of diabetes management and plays a positive role in the prevention and treatment of diabetic kidney disease. Exercise reduces the albuminuria and improves renal outcomes in patients with diabetes,which is independent of blood glucose control. Previous studies have shown that exercise can improve renal function by improving glucose homeostasis and endothelial cell function,reducing oxidative stress and inflammation,regulating renin -angiotensin -aldosterone system and biological action of actin. Recommended types of exercise include aerobic exercise,resistance exercise,combination exercise and flexibility exercise. Appropriate exercise methods should be selected according to individual condition in clinical practice.

    关键词

    运动糖尿病肾病糖尿病

  • 糖尿病肾病(diabetic kidney disease,DKD)是糖尿病主要的微血管并发症之一,目前已成为我国住院患者慢性肾脏病(chronic kidney disease,CKD)的首要病因。据统计,1 型糖尿病(type1 diabetes, T1D)、2型糖尿病(type2 diabetes,T2D)患者中DKD 的发生率分别为25%~40%和5%~40%,糖尿病导致的终末期肾病(end stage kidney disease,ESKD)的发生率从 2000 年的 22.1%上升到 2015 年的 31.3%[1]。 DKD 主要表现为进行性蛋白尿以及肾小球滤过率 (glomerular filtration rate,GFR)下降,最终发展为 ESKD[2]。针对高血糖、高血压、超重或肥胖等危险因素的管理可以预防 DKD 的发生。而对已确诊 DKD 的患者,通过给予具有肾脏保护作用的降糖、降压及降脂药物治疗,可以延缓白蛋白尿进展[3]。体育运动是糖尿病患者健康管理的重要内容。在过去10年中,动物模型和人类研究已证明运动可独立于血糖控制保护肾脏功能,减少蛋白尿,改善糖尿病导致的肾组织功能改变。然而,运动改善DKD 具体机制的研究较少。本文对已有文献中运动对 DKD的最新研究进行阐述,旨在指导运动配合临床干预和药物治疗,以更好预防或延缓DKD进展。

  • 1 DKD发病机制

  • 1.1 高血糖和血液动力学紊乱

  • 高血糖和血液动力学紊乱是DKD 发生发展的主要起始因素。在发病早期,高血糖诱导控制肾小动脉张力的血管活性因子一氧化碳、内皮素⁃1等的变化,传入血管扩张和传出血管收缩导致肾小球内压升高和肾脏高滤过,从而导致内皮细胞表型改变,肾小球基底膜通透性增加,引起蛋白尿[4]

  • 1.2 炎症反应

  • 细胞内葡萄糖代谢改变产生晚期糖基化终产物(advanced glycation end product,AGE),活性氧 (reactive oxygen species,ROS)产生增加,激活蛋白激酶C和Janus激酶信号转导和转录激活因子(sig⁃ nal transducer and activator of transcription,STAT)途径,高血糖诱导的ROS增加激活核因子⁃κB(nuclear factor kappa⁃B,NF⁃κB),暴露于AGE的足细胞使NF⁃ κB相关的各种促炎介质表达上调,刺激炎症细胞浸润、黏附分子和促炎基因的表达和促纤维化因子的释放[5]

  • 1.3 肾素⁃血管紧张素⁃醛固酮系统(renin anioten⁃ sion aldosterone system,RAAS)激活

  • 肾脏RAAS系统被高血糖和AGE激活,血管紧张素转换酶Ⅱ(angiotensin Ⅱ,AngⅡ)除了增加肾小球内压引起肾小球基底膜通透性改变,还通过烟酰胺腺嘌呤二核苷酸磷酸(nicotinamide adenine dinu⁃ cleotide phosphate,NADPH)氧化酶产生氧化应激,并通过激活促炎和促纤维化细胞因子来促进炎症和纤维化。

  • 1.4 其他

  • 近年来,越来越多的研究进一步探索了遗传和表观遗传调控、线粒体功能障碍、脂肪酸代谢、肌动蛋白生物作用、足细胞自噬和肾脏纤维化等在DKD 发生发展中的作用[6]

  • 2 运动改善DKD的临床研究

  • 运动已被证明可帮助糖尿病患者控制血糖、血脂,降低体重,改善胰岛素敏感性,改善心肺功能,提高幸福感,减少心血管并发症、微血管并发症发生风险,降低死亡率[7]。荟萃分析证明运动在改善糖尿病患者的肾功能方面发挥有益作用,可有效减少糖尿病患者的微量白蛋白尿(OR=0.61,95%CI: 0.46~0.81)和肾功能衰竭发生率(OR=0.71,95%CI:0.52~0.97)[8]。大型随机对照试验“T2D患者强化血糖控制与血管并发症”研究数据表明,从事中至高强度运动的患者与不进行或轻度体力活动的患者相比,在中位数为5年的随访期间内,发生微血管事件的风险降低(HR:0.85,95%CI:0.76~0.96,P=0.010)[9]。芬兰 DKD(FinnDiane)研究发现 T1D 患者体力活动与DKD有相关性,微量白蛋白尿者与尿白蛋白排泄率正常的患者相比,从事低强度体力活动的频率更高(P=0.047),并且在调整了混杂因素后,较高频率和高强度的体力活动可以降低T1D患者患DKD 的风险[10]。最近一项针对中老年糖尿病心血管事件高危患者的大样本研究显示,每周至少2次的运动与较低的ESKD发生率和蛋白尿发生率显著相关,并与GFR下降延缓相关(P<0.000 1)[11]。Tamiya等[12] 对 173例DKD患者进行了39个月的前瞻性随访,发现久坐(≥525 min/d)增加了 DKD 患者发生肾脏或心血管事件和/或全因死亡风险(HR:1.23,95% CI 1.05~1.45,P=0.012)。最新研究显示,有氧运动结合四肢肌肉强化训练6个月可降低DKD患者发生腹膜/血液透析、心血管疾病风险和全因死亡率,同时升高高密度脂蛋白胆固醇水平,改善脂代谢[13]。以上临床研究证明了运动对DKD的改善作用,然而目前运动干预DKD的相关研究多为小型临床试验,且持续时间较短,未来需要更多大样本量、干预时间更长的随机对照研究,为DKD患者的运动指导提供依据。

  • 尽管已有大量证据表明规律运动对于糖尿病患者的益处,但绝大多数糖尿病患者未能养成运动习惯。欧洲一项对18 028例成年T1D患者的大型横断面研究显示,不到20%的患者能够进行每周至少2次有氧运动[1 4]。美国T2D患者运动自我报告研究显示,只有42.6%~65.1%的患者达到了美国糖尿病协会(American Diabetes Association,ADA)指南推荐的运动时长[15]。目前尚缺乏DKD患者运动现况的调查研究,但CKD流行病学研究显示,CKD患者每月平均运动 9 d,45%的 ESKD 患者不进行运动[16]。 DKD患者运动量减少的原因可能为血糖控制困难、肌肉功能降低、合并心血管疾病以及红细胞生成素生成减少导致的血红蛋白浓度降低。此外,医疗保健提供者未能提供足够的运动咨询、缺乏运动处方和激励措施也是DKD患者缺乏运动的原因之一[7]

  • 3 运动对DKD的干预机制

  • 3.1 运动改善葡萄糖稳态

  • 已有多条证据表明胰岛素抵抗在DKD 肾功能损伤中起致病作用,体外模型证明足细胞特异性胰岛素抵抗会导致蛋白尿、肾小球基底膜增厚和肾小球硬化[17]。运动能通过非胰岛素介导的AMP激酶 (AMP⁃activated protein kinase,AMPK)途径和胰岛素依赖途径增加肌肉对葡萄糖的摄取,改善胰岛素抵抗和血糖水平。在运动过程中,肌肉收缩刺激的胰岛素抵抗改善与 AMPK 活性增加相关,后者使 TCB1D1磷酸化从而失活,GTP与葡萄糖转运蛋白4 (glucose transporter 4,GLUT4)上的 Rab 蛋白反应,促进葡萄糖转运至细胞膜,从而增加肌肉的葡萄糖摄取[18]。在 T2D 患者和高脂喂养的大鼠中均可以观察到运动后 AMPK 活性的增加,GLUT4 浓度增加,胰岛素抵抗也得到了改善[19]。在胰岛素依赖途径中,运动激活胰岛素信号转导元件,诱导 GLUT4 表达和移位到细胞膜,促进葡萄糖进入细胞[20],从而降低血糖。

  • 3.2 运动改善内皮细胞功能

  • 研究发现,运动增加一氧化氮合酶(nitric oxide synthase,NOS)的表达,减少氧化应激,从而改善糖尿病小鼠的血管舒张功能。其中,运动显著上调内皮型一氧化氮合酶在肥胖糖尿病大鼠肾小球中的表达[21]。维持8周的有氧运动显著减少肥胖糖尿病大鼠的白蛋白尿,肾脏一氧化氮代谢改善,然而在一氧化氮生物利用度低的情况下,运动会诱发肾脏损伤,因此有氧训练的肾脏保护作用有可能依赖一氧化氮生物利用度[22]。此外,长期规律运动可通过增加血流量激活AMPK/miR⁃181b轴,改善内皮功能障碍 [23]

  • 3.3 运动减轻炎症反应

  • 研究表明运动介导的 NF⁃κB、白介素(interleu⁃ kin,IL)⁃6和IL⁃10等细胞因子以及免疫细胞数量的改变参与DKD的抗炎机制。在糖尿病发病前后各进行4周和8周的有氧运动显著降低了链脲佐菌素 (streptozotocin,STZ)诱导的糖尿病小鼠肾脏组织中的免疫细胞数量,减少 NF ⁃κB、转化生长因子⁃β (transforming growth factor β,TGF⁃β)表达[24];Souza 等[24] 发现提前8周进行有氧训练的STZ诱导大鼠较对照组能改善糖尿病导致的肾小球和肾小管间质改变,减少肾小球和肾小管间质中的巨噬细胞、淋巴细胞数量和纤连蛋白、TGF⁃β1、NF⁃κB 表达。中等强度有氧运动能通过抑制 NF⁃κB 活性减轻肾脏炎症,逆转糖尿病所致的组织学改变[25]。此外,步行运动 30 min 诱导血浆抗炎因子 IL⁃10 与促炎因子IL⁃6水平显著升高,维持6个月的常规步行运动(30 min/d,5 次/周)导致血浆 IL⁃6/IL⁃10 降低,并减少了T淋巴细胞和单核细胞活化[26]。此外,对25例透析治疗患者每周进行3次阻力运动,可增加外周血单核细胞核因子红细胞⁃2相关因子2(nuclear factor erythroid 2⁃ related factor 2,Nrf2)的 mRNA 表达[27], Nrf2的激活上调体内抗氧化酶和抗炎细胞因子的表达,从而减少 ROS 的形成,提示运动增强 Nrf2 激活可能是DKD抗炎的一个潜在机制。

  • 3.4 运动减轻氧化应激

  • 研究发现,运动训练能降低STZ诱导的糖尿病大鼠的肾脂质过氧化,促进DKD的保护作用[24]。跑步机运动训练显著降低 T2D 雄性肥胖大鼠肾脏中的氧化应激水平,抑制近端肾小管细胞线粒体形态异常的发展,减轻了细胞凋亡并恢复肾皮质的自噬[28]。此外,有氧运动训练能逆转久坐糖尿病小鼠肾组织中线粒体功能障碍、线粒体超氧化物歧化生成增加,上调沉默信息调节因子 2 相关酶 1(silence information regulator 2 homolog1,SIRT1)/过氧化物酶增殖激活受体γ转录共激活因子(peroxisome proliferator⁃activated receptor γ coactivator⁃1,PGC⁃1α) 轴,从而减轻DKD的进展[29]。以糖尿病db/db小鼠为实验动物模型,跑步机有氧运动训练显著抑制 NADPH 氧化酶 4(Nox4)介导的氧化应激,依赖于 Nox4的ROS生成减少,抑制NF⁃κB/NOD样受体家族 3(NOD⁃like receptor thermal protein domain associated protein 3,NLRP3)炎症信号通路,从而减轻肾脏损伤[30]

  • 3.5 运动调节RAAS系统

  • 目前已有一些研究证实运动对RAAS发挥积极调控作用。RAAS是一个具有两个相反分支的双系统,一个是由血管紧张素转换酶(angiotensin con⁃ verting enzyme,ACE)、血管紧张素(angiotensin,Ang) Ⅱ和血管紧张素Ⅰ型受体(angiotensin type1 recep⁃ tor,AT1R)形成的经典途径,另一个是由 ACE2、 Ang1⁃7和Mas受体组成的反调节系统,后者具有抗炎、血管扩张、抗增殖、心脏保护和肾脏保护作用。来自动物研究的数据显示,体育锻炼能够下调经典 ACE/Ang Ⅱ/AT1R轴,上调ACE 2/Ang1⁃7/Mas轴[31],阻力训练使糖尿病大鼠肾脏RAAS的平衡向ACE2/ Ang1⁃7轴转移,并减轻了炎症反应[32],其效果需要在临床上进一步评估。此外,肾衰竭动物模型表明规律运动可减少心脏中AngⅡ的过度积聚、缓解左心室重构、减少心肌纤维化,可能改善DKD肾功能衰竭患者的左心室肥厚[33]

  • 3.6 运动通过“肌肉⁃肾脏轴”改善DKD

  • 肌肉不仅是重要的运动器官,也能作为内分泌器官,分泌肌动蛋白进入血液循环,发挥不同的生物学作用[34]。研究显示急性运动过程中肌肉收缩会释放大量的 IL ⁃6,但维持运动能显著降低基线 IL ⁃6水平,减轻全身炎症,从而延缓DKD的进展[35]。虹膜蛋白可以抑制TGF ⁃β1减轻肾脏纤维化。有氧运动诱导分泌虹膜蛋白,可激活 AMPK,并以剂量依赖的方式抑制高糖诱导的肾小管上皮细胞外基质积聚,从而起肾脏保护作用[36]。此外,肌联素、 YKL⁃40、脂肪酸结合蛋白、成纤维细胞生长因子21 等越来越多的肌动蛋白被发现,需要进一步研究来确定它们是否与DKD有关[34]

  • 此外,运动能通过调节脂肪酸代谢、足细胞凋亡以及肾脏纤维化等改善 DKD。虽然目前支持运动改善DKD脂质代谢的临床研究有限,但动物试验显示运动使脂肪酸代谢相关的中链酰基辅酶A脱氢酶和PGC⁃1α的表达增加,可独立于血糖改善抑制肾小球和肾小管间质的损伤[37]。此外,骨骼肌收缩可增加机体能量需求,通过外周脂肪分解和肝脏游离脂肪酸氧化促进葡萄糖稳态[38],从而改善 DKD。 Yang等[39] 发现跑步机训练逆转 STZ 介导的糖尿病小鼠胱硫醚β合成酶和胱硫醚γ裂解酶的下调,增强肾脏内源性硫化氢的产生,从而抑制 SIRT1/p53 凋亡通路,减轻糖尿病相关肾损伤。此外,有氧运动减少TGF⁃β、Ⅰ型胶原、Ⅳ型胶原和平滑肌肌动蛋白抗体的表达,从而减缓肾脏纤维化的进展[30]

  • 4 DKD的运动方案

  • 最新ADA 生活保健指南推荐糖尿病患者主要运动类型是有氧运动、阻力运动、组合运动和柔韧性运动[7]。指南建议糖尿病儿童和青少年应每天进行60 min的中或高度有氧运动和每周3次的高强度阻力运动;成年人每周应进行至少3次、总时长150 min 的中至高强度有氧运动以及2~3次阻力运动;老年人每周进行 2~3 次灵活性训练和平衡训练[7],尚不推荐老年患者进行阻力运动以及高强度间歇训练 (high⁃intensity interval training,HIIT)[40]

  • ADA体育活动/运动指南中不限制患者运动类型[41],建议微量白蛋白尿患者参与中至高强度运动;大量白蛋白尿患者如存在运动能力限制,应从低强度和低活动量的运动开始,逐渐增加运动强度和时长。2022年肾脏协会制定的CKD运动和生活方式的临床实践指南中对非透析的CKD患者、透析以及肾脏移植患者做出了相关建议,鼓励CKD患者打破久坐习惯,逐渐增加运动强度,每周进行150 min 中等强度的有氧运动或 75 min 的中至高强度运动。大量研究证明了运动在透析患者中的有效性和安全性,因此,指南推荐没有禁忌证的透析患者每周应进行150 min的中等强度或75 min的高强度运动[40]

  • 已有研究证明不同的运动形式均能对DKD 产生有利影响,其中有氧训练是最有效的运动形式之一,可以增加心肺适应性,增强胰岛素敏感性,减轻体重,改善糖脂代谢;阻力运动和HIIT有助于增加骨骼肌含量,降低T1D患者运动诱发低血糖风险[42]。已有研究比较了不同运动形式对 DKD 的改善作用。有氧、阻力、混合运动以及HIIT等多种形式的运动方式均可改善T2D患者微血管舒张功能[37],其中有氧运动和混合运动对内皮功能的改善更为显著[43];HIIT 和中等强度持续有氧运动能显著增强反调节RAAS 轴的激活,后者作用更为明显[44]。然而,国际上目前仍未确定DKD最佳的运动形式与运动方案,但医务人员应鼓励患者尽可能参与运动,根据个体情况选择适合的运动形式,并逐步提升运动强度。

  • 对患者开立运动处方时,医务人员应告知患者相关运动禁忌证:①合并增殖性糖尿病视网膜病变或严重的非增殖性糖尿病视网膜病变[7];②合并心血管疾病,可引起心肌缺血、收缩或舒张性心功能障碍或下肢缺血者;③合并自主神经病变、有心率和血压调节障碍的患者[45];④周围神经病和足部溃疡。合并以上并发症的DKD患者应避免运动或降低运动强度。此外,T1D患者运动期间和运动后血糖波动风险增加,患者可通过选择合适的运动形式、控制运动强度和持续时间、调整胰岛素剂量、摄入额外的碳水化合物以及连续血糖监测,从而加强运动前、运动期间以及运动后的血糖控制,尽可能减少低血糖的发生[46]

  • 5 结语

  • 总之,运动是实现糖尿病患者代谢控制、血糖稳态和预防糖尿病并发症的重要策略。研究显示,运动能通过独立于血糖控制的其他机制防止和减缓DKD进程,从而改善糖尿病患者的健康和生活质量。然而,糖尿病患者存在运动动机缺乏的问题。目前尚无指南确定最佳体育活动类型、频率、强度和持续时间,在临床糖尿病教育中应推荐糖尿病患者规律进行运动,促进疾病自我管理的自主性。

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