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通讯作者:

王洁,E-mail:wangjienjmu@126.com

中图分类号:R512.6

文献标识码:A

文章编号:1007-4368(2023)10-1464-06

DOI:10.7655/NYDXBNS20231021

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目录contents

    摘要

    戊型肝炎是由戊型肝炎病毒感染引起的一种传染性疾病,是全球范围内的重要公共卫生问题。尽管戊型肝炎通常被认为是一种无症状、自限性疾病,但其临床表现呈多样性变化,部分患者可出现重症化或慢性化进展,造成不良预后,危害较为严重。免疫反应是决定戊型肝炎患者临床表现和结局的关键因素,正常的免疫反应有助于病毒清除和疾病康复,而过度或紊乱的免疫反应则可参与其重症化和慢性化进程,导致疾病进展。本文通过文献回顾,从天然免疫反应和适应性免疫反应两个方面对戊型肝炎重症化及慢性化的免疫学机制进行综述,以期为该类患者的早期预测、临床防治和疾病管理提供理论依据和新思路。

    Abstract

    Hepatitis E is an infectious disease caused by hepatitis E virus(HEV)infection,which is a significant public health concern worldwide. Although hepatitis E is generally considered an asymptomatic,self-limiting disease,its clinical manifestations vary, some patients may develop severe or chronic progression,resulting in poor prognosis and serious harm. Immune response is a key factor determining the clinical manifestation and outcome of hepatitis E. Normal immune response facilitates the clearance of virus and recovery from this disease,while excessive or disordered immune response can participate in severe and chronic progression of the disease,leading to disease progression. Through literature review,this article summarizes the immunological mechanisms of HEV related liver failure and chronic hepatitis E,including innate immune response and adaptive immune response,in order to provide theoretical basis and new ideas for early prediction,clinical prevention and treatment,and disease management.

  • 戊型肝炎病毒(hepatitis E virus,HEV)是一种无包膜小型单股正链RNA病毒,其完整基因组长度为 7.2 kb,包含 4 个开放阅读框(open reading frame, ORF)[1]。HEV 是全球范围内导致急性病毒性肝炎的主要病原体之一,粪⁃口传播是其主要传播途径[2]。目前发现HEV有8个基因型(genotype,GT),其中 GT1~4 型及 GT7 型主要造成人类感染。荟萃分析显示[3],约 1/8 的全球人口,相当于超过 900 万人,曾感染HEV。HEV在我国常为散发,偶有爆发,2021年发病人数达2.6万,已连续10年远超甲型病毒性肝炎,居成人急性病毒性肝炎病因的首位,成为我国一项重大的公共卫生问题[4]

  • 戊型肝炎(hepatitis E,HE)临床表现多样,尽管通常被认为是一种无症状、自限性疾病,但其也可表现为急性戊型肝炎(acute hepatitis E,AHE)、慢性戊型肝炎(chronic hepatitis E,CHE)和重型戊型肝炎 (戊型肝炎相关肝衰竭)(HEV related liver failure, HEV⁃LF)[5]。不同国家或地区(主要流行的 HEV 基因型不同)人群感染 HEV 后临床表现具有较大差异[6]。尽管存在地理区域和人群的异质性,HEV 仍是导致许多发展中国家感染者肝衰竭的首要病因[7]。有研究表明[8-11],约 32.0%的 HE 患者可出现重症化进展,尤其在妊娠、老年、合并既往慢性肝病和肝炎病毒重叠感染等人群中更易发生重症化,病死率较高。在免疫抑制患者中,HEV感染后临床易进展为慢性戊型肝炎,即 HEV 不能被及时有效清除,HEV RNA 持续阳性超过 3 个月[512]。使用免疫抑制药物、实体脏器移植(solid organ transplant, SOT)、人类免疫缺陷病毒(human immunodeficiency virus,HIV)感染和血液系统疾病患者是HE 慢性化进展的高危人群[12-13]。大型队列研究和荟萃分析显示[14-15],经过SOT的HEV患者中约2/3出现慢性化, SOT显著提高患者进展为失代偿肝硬化的风险,危害十分严重。因此,阐明 HE 的重症化和慢性化机制对临床防治具有重要意义。

  • 宿主抗病毒免疫有助于病毒清除和疾病康复,而过度或紊乱的免疫反应则可导致疾病进展[16]。现有证据表明[17],HE 患者出现临床症状的主要原因为HEV诱导的免疫炎症反应,而非其病毒本身的嗜肝性,并且参与HE重症化、慢性化的发生和发展过程,是决定 HE 患者临床表现和结局的关键因素。此外,HE 患者的肠道菌群及其代谢产物可发生改变,并可能通过调控机体免疫反应进而影响疾病进程[18]。近年来,国内外学者开始关注 HE 的重症化和慢性化问题,现有文献初步揭示其免疫学机制。本文对HE重症化和慢性化的免疫学机制研究进展进行综述,以期为该类患者的早期预测、临床防治和疾病管理提供理论依据和新思路。

  • 1 天然免疫

  • 天然免疫作为宿主抗病毒免疫的第一道防线,可对HEV感染迅速做出非特异性免疫反应,包括激活天然免疫细胞、模式识别受体及干扰素应答等。

  • 1.1 自然杀伤细胞

  • 自然杀伤细胞(natural killer cell,NK cell)是常见的天然免疫细胞亚群,也是肝脏淋巴细胞中的优势组成部分,在抗HEV天然免疫反应中发挥重要作用[19]。然而,NK细胞也参与HE的重症化和慢性化进展过程。

  • 1.1.1 过度的 NK 细胞免疫反应造成肝脏损伤,参与HE重症化

  • 研究显示[20-21],HE 患者外周血单个核细胞 (peripheral blood mononuclear cell,PBMC)中总NK细胞比例、活化的 NK 细胞比例均高于健康对照组, NK 细胞比例和活化状态呈可逆性改变;HE患者的丙氨酸氨基转移酶和天门冬氨酸氨基转移酶水平与 NK 细胞比例呈明显正相关[21],提示 NK 细胞参与宿主抗HEV天然免疫反应,并且与HE相关肝脏损伤有关。过度的 NK 细胞免疫反应可能是部分 HE患者出现持续肝脏损伤的原因[1921],主要表现为 CD56brightCD16- NK细胞产生的干扰素γ(interferon⁃γ, IFN ⁃γ)、肿瘤坏死因子α(tumor necrosis factor α, TNF⁃α)在患者病程后期仍高于正常水平,介导靶细胞杀伤毒性的CD56dimCD16+ NK细胞在整个病程中也始终处于较高水平[21],使肝脏出现过度的免疫炎症,造成肝脏损伤。尽管Srivastava 等[20] 发现, HEV⁃LF 患者的外周血中总 NK 细胞比例降低,但这可能与外周血中 NK 细胞迁移至肝脏发挥免疫效应或被过度激活后发生凋亡有关。Prabhu 等[22] 采用免疫组织化学检测发现,HEV⁃LF 患者肝组织标本中 NK 细胞计数高于健康对照组和其他病毒性肝炎重症患者,提示 NK 细胞在 HEV⁃LF 患者肝脏中浸润,参与 HE 重症化进程。此外,NK 细胞可通过 Fas/FasL、TRAIL/TRAILR 等死亡受体通路、杀伤活化受体配体识别途径等,在发挥杀伤靶细胞效应的同时导致严重的肝脏损伤,从而造成病毒性肝炎的重症化[23-24],但在 HE 背景下尚缺乏具体证据。

  • 1.1.2 HEV 感染的 SOT 患者 NK 细胞免疫反应降低,可能参与HE慢性化

  • 有研究发现,HEV感染的SOT患者多种免疫细胞比例均有不同程度的降低,其外周血中 NK 细胞比例低于未感染的 SOT 患者[25]。NK 细胞释放的 IFN⁃γ是抗HEV感染中重要的细胞因子,其水平在免疫抑制剂治疗的SOT患者中也下降,继发下游炎症因子减少和适应性免疫细胞激活不足,可能参与 HE的慢性化进展[26-27]

  • 1.2 模式识别受体与干扰素应答

  • HEV 可被包括 Toll 样受体(toll ⁃like receptor, TLR)和核苷酸寡聚化域样受体(nucleotide binding oligomerization domain like receptor,NLR)在内的多个 RNA 病毒特异性模式识别受体(pattern recogni⁃ tion receptor,PRR)识别,激活下游信号通路,诱导 IFN和其他促炎细胞因子的产生,发挥抗病毒免疫效应[27]。然而,PRR 免疫反应也与 HE 重症化和慢性化有关。

  • 1.2.1 TLR免疫功能异常参与HE重症化

  • Majumdar 等[28]发现,AHE 患者 PBMC 上清中 IFN⁃γ水平高于HEV⁃LF患者并与TLR3表达水平呈正相关。相对AHE患者,HEV⁃LF患者TLR3基因低表达,其IFN⁃γ水平也显著降低。同时,Sehgal等[29] 的研究也显示,HEV⁃LF 患者单核细胞免疫功能障碍,其TLR3、TLR7、TLR9表达水平均降低。这可能是通过髓样分化因子(myeloid differentiation factor 88,MYD88)依赖性和非依赖性途径损害 TLR 下游信号转导的结果,该情况在妊娠的HEV⁃LF 患者中更加显著。上述研究提示,TLR免疫功能异常可能与HE患者重症化有关,表现为TLR3⁃IFN⁃γ轴的改变、TLR 免疫应答受损等,其具体机制尚未完全阐明。TLR 功能障碍可削弱 HE 患者先天免疫反应,使得机体清除HEV能力下降进而导致HE重症化进展,但也可能是已发生重症化的 HE 患者出现 TLR 免疫缺陷或由于过度免疫反应后呈现出的无反应性结果。此外,肠道菌群的微生物相关分子模式也可通过肝⁃肠轴直接或间接影响肝脏和肠道的TLR 激活,进而影响下游炎症因子和趋化因子释放,参与疾病进展过程[30-31]。近期有研究发现[18],HEV⁃LF、 AHE 患者和健康人群间的肠道菌群结构和优势菌群种类存在差异,未来可进一步在 HE 背景下探索其相关免疫学机制。

  • 1.2.2 NLRP3免疫功能异常参与HE重症化

  • NLR 激活后可触发炎症小体组装,在宿主抗 HEV 免疫反应中发挥重要作用。核苷酸结合寡聚化结构域样受体蛋白3(NOD⁃like receptor protein 3, NLRP3)是其中表征最好的炎症体,其被激活后发挥促炎免疫效应,可引起白细胞介素(interluckin,IL)⁃1β 和IL⁃18等细胞因子释放,有利于HEV清除从而促进疾病恢复[32]。然而,Li等[33] 研究发现,HEV ORF2 衣壳蛋白和完整HEV颗粒可强烈激活巨噬细胞中 NLRP3组装,使IL⁃1β和IL⁃18等下游炎症因子过度释放,造成肝脏炎症加重,与HE患者肝脏损伤和更高的疾病分期有关。此外,NLRP3的激活还可对患者的IFN应答发挥拮抗作用,促进HEV在巨噬细胞中的复制,推动HE 临床进展。而Thakur 等[34] 则认为,能够表达高水平 NLRP3 的 HE 患者在 IL⁃1β和 IL⁃18分泌方面表现出强烈促炎反应,有利于疾病恢复,NLRP3表达及其细胞因子水平较低的患者易出现重症化进展。尽管存在一定争议,上述研究仍提示适当的NLRP3免疫反应有助于HEV的清除,过度和紊乱的 NLRP3 免疫反应则可造成 HE 重症化进展。目前,NLRP3的激活还被证实与乙型肝炎肝衰竭、非酒精性脂肪肝炎和药物性肝损伤等肝脏疾病发生及发展有关[35],肠道菌群代谢产物对NLRP3激活也有一定影响[36],未来可通过对NLRP3在HE重症化进展中的机制研究,进一步探索肠道菌群及其代谢产物对NLRP3免疫反应的影响及其与HE重症化的关系。

  • 1.2.3 HEV ORF 干扰 PRR 及其下游通路,参与 HE 慢性化

  • HEV ORF在PRR下游具有逃避宿主天然免疫反应的复杂策略,不同的HEV ORF可通过多种机制干扰如 TLR3、NOD2 等重要的 PRR,影响其下游信号通路和细胞因子释放,利于HEV免疫逃逸,可能参与HE患者的慢性化进展[37]。例如,HEV ORF3可破坏 TLR3 信号成分及 NF⁃κB 通路活性,从而阻碍其对HEV的识别和清除,可能与病毒编码蛋白酶降解细胞内蛋白支架或宿主蛋白酶体降解系统失活有关[38]。HEV ORF3 还可以通过抑制 TLR3、NOD2 介导的 NF⁃κB 通路,从而抑制脂多糖刺激的 PMA⁃ THP1细胞表达促炎因子和趋化因子。经动物实验验证,在经过 pLL3.7 ⁃ORF3(pORF3)感染后上述 PRR的表达水平降低[39]。以上提示HEV可能通过其ORF3干扰巨噬细胞信号转导,阻碍机体对HEV 的免疫清除,利于病毒复制,进而可能参与CHE的发生。

  • 2 适应性免疫

  • 正常情况下,病毒感染可刺激初始T细胞活化增殖,并分化为辅助性T细胞(helper T cell,Th)、调节性T 细胞(regulatory T cell,Treg)和细胞毒性T 细胞(cytotoxic T lymphocyte,CTL),各效应T细胞亚群通过不同途径和方式参与宿主抗HEV适应性免疫过程[27]。近年来研究提示,适应性免疫尤其是T细胞免疫在 HE 的重症化和慢性化过程中起到关键作用。

  • 2.1 辅助性T细胞与调节性T细胞

  • 2.1.1 Th1/Th2比例失衡参与HE重症化

  • HEV 感染可刺激 Th0 向 Th1 分化增殖,继而释放IFN⁃γ、IL⁃2等细胞因子,参与宿主抗HEV免疫反应并影响感染结局。AHE患者外周血中Th1/Th2平衡趋向 Th1 型优势免疫应答,而 Th2 比例及其细胞因子水平无明显变化[40-41]。研究显示,HEV⁃LF患者外周血Th1/Th2比例显著低于AHE患者,呈现Th1/ Th2 比例失衡(Th2 偏倚现象),Th1 释放的 IFN⁃γ水平亦低于AHE患者,而Th2释放的IL⁃4水平则高于 AHE 患者,提示Th1/Th2释放的炎症因子也呈失衡状态[41]。此外,妊娠状态的AHE患者可出现明显的 Th2偏倚,与其重症化进展和不良预后有关[42]。除病毒感染因素外,这种变化还可能与妊娠期Th2细胞因子谱系统性转变有关,孕激素(如孕酮、雌二醇和前列腺素D2等)可促进Th2分布,并且可能部分负责妊娠患者的Th2偏倚[40]。Wu等[18] 的研究还发现,HEV⁃LF患者Th比例变化可能与其肠道菌群特征改变存在一定关联。上述研究提示,Th1/Th2 比例及其炎症因子水平失衡与 HE 患者肝脏损伤有关,可能参与HE重症化过程,其具体机制尚待进一步研究阐明。

  • 2.1.2 Th17/Treg比例失衡参与HE重症化

  • HEV感染可促进Th17分化和其下游促炎细胞因子IL⁃17、IL⁃22等释放,有助于病毒清除。研究显示,HEV⁃LF 患者外周血 Th17 比例高于 AHE 患者。 Th17 水平过高可导致促炎细胞因子(IL⁃17、IL⁃22 等)过度释放。其中,IL⁃17介导强烈的肝脏免疫炎症[43],而 IL⁃22 在急性肝炎患者中可增强肝内趋化因子表达,增加炎性细胞浸润,放大特异性 CTL 细胞介导的细胞毒性[44],促进肝脏损伤。因此,外周血Th17水平升高是HE患者重症化和不良预后的危险因素之一[43-44]。此外,HEV ⁃LF 患者外周血中 Th17/Treg比例也呈升高状态,并且与HE患者肝脏损伤程度呈正相关[43],提示 Th17/Treg 免疫稳态失调可能参与戊型肝炎重症化进程。既往有研究指出[36],Th17和Treg的分化受肠道菌群代谢产物的调控,代谢产物短链脂肪酸可通过与G蛋白偶联受体结合和抑制组蛋白去乙酰化酶活性促进 Treg 分化和抑制Th17分化,从而维持免疫稳态。而近期的一项研究发现[18],HEV⁃LF 患者肠道菌群中短链脂肪酸产生菌(如乳杆菌属)减少,提示可能通过调控 Th17/Treg分化影响其免疫稳态进而参与HE重症化进展。

  • 2.2 细胞毒性T细胞参与HE重症化

  • CTL 在 Th 和促炎细胞因子的作用下发挥细胞毒性作用,可直接杀伤被HEV感染的肝细胞,抑制病毒复制,同时也引起HE患者严重的肝脏损伤[27]。 HEV⁃LF患者总CD4+ T细胞计数减少,总CD8+ T细胞计数增加,出现CD4+ /CD8+ T细胞比例降低,且患者肝组织中活化的CD8+ T细胞呈显著浸润[45],提示 CTL可能与HE重症化进展有关。

  • 2.3 T细胞耗竭参与HE慢性化

  • 研究发现,免疫抑制状态的 CHE 患者不能有效清除 HEV,CD8+ T 细胞经过慢性持续高度抗原刺激后可发生耗竭现象,相应功能性 HEV 特异性 CD8+ T 细胞应答明显减弱,且 HEV 的免疫逃逸有助于 T 细胞耗竭的发生[46]。耗竭的 HEV 特异性 CD8+ T 细胞对免疫抑制敏感,并且只有在减少免疫抑制和/或应用利巴韦林时才能在部分患者中恢复[47-48]。此外,选择性地表达于CD4+ T和CD8+ T 细胞表面的免疫检查点,如PD⁃1、CTLA⁃4和TIM3等通过与其配体结合约束T细胞的免疫功能,同时也参与CHE患者T细胞耗竭过程。而通过阻断特定免疫检查点后可恢复CHE患者的HEV特异性T细胞免疫反应[4649-50]。上述研究提示,免疫抑制的HE患者可出现T细胞耗竭,参与HE患者的慢性化进展。

  • 3 总结与展望

  • HEV感染是目前全球重要的公共卫生问题,可进展为重症肝炎和慢性肝炎,导致不良预后,且缺乏有效治疗措施,因此研究戊型肝炎重症化和慢性化机制对早期防治和疾病管理具有重要意义。免疫反应被认为是参与HE重症化和慢性化过程中的关键因素,目前 HE 重症化免疫机制研究主要集中在促炎/抗炎免疫反应失平衡,促炎免疫反应过强造成 HE 患者肝脏免疫炎症损伤;而其慢性化免疫机制的探索主要关注免疫抑制HE患者机体的不同免疫反应受损。尽管已有研究对戊型肝炎重症化和慢性化免疫机制进行了初步探索,但仍有不少问题有待进一步阐明。首先,目前 HE 慢性化的免疫学机制研究仍较少,T细胞在HE慢性化过程中可能有重要作用,需要后续研究进行深入探索。其次,现有的 HE 重症化和慢性化免疫学机制仍不够明确,如 NLRP3 在 HE 重症化中的作用尚存在争议、 Th1/Th2 偏倚在 HE 重症化中的发生机制仍未完全阐明等。最后,现有研究多阐述了 HE 重症化和慢性化相关的免疫学现象,而涉及具体免疫分子机制的探索则较少,这也是未来研究需要重点关注的方向之一。

  • 戊型肝炎重症化和慢性化结局是HEV 和多因素共同作用的结果,其中免疫反应在病毒感染、炎症反应及疾病进展中扮演重要角色,深入系统探究其免疫学机制有望为寻找特异有效的早期诊断和防治策略提供重要线索和科学依据。

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