溶瘤病毒在乳腺癌治疗中的研究进展
doi: 10.7655/NYDXBNSN250062
陈宗浩1,2 , 吴穹2 , 陈磊1,2
1. 南京医科大学姑苏学院,江苏 苏州 215000
2. 南京医科大学附属苏州医院介入血管科,江苏 苏州 215000
基金项目: 江苏省卫生健康委医学科研项目(H2023009)
Research progress of oncolytic viruses in breast cancer treatment
CHEN Zonghao1,2 , WU Qiong2 , CHEN Lei1,2
1. Gusu School,Nanjing Medical University,Suzhou 215000
2. Department of Interventional Vascular Surgery,Suzhou Hospital Affiliated to Nanjing Medical University,Suzhou 215000 ,China
摘要
乳腺癌(breast cancer,BC)作为全球女性最普遍的恶性肿瘤,已成为全球重大公共卫生问题。虽然早期诊断和治疗技术有所提升,但治疗效果仍不尽人意。BC作为一种具有高度异质性和多种分子分型的恶性肿瘤,其复杂的生物学特性为治疗带来了极大挑战。传统的化疗和免疫疗法存在精确度不足、不良反应严重以及容易产生耐药性等问题,因此迫切需要开发新的治疗方案。溶瘤病毒(oncolytic virus,OV)作为一种创新性癌症治疗手段,其独特之处在于能够精确识别并攻击癌细胞,同时激活机体的免疫系统以对抗癌症。目前,已有多种OV被应用于癌症治疗,如单纯疱疹病毒(herpes simplex virus,HSV)、新城疫病毒(newcastle disease virus,NDV)、水疱口炎病毒(vesicular stomatitis virus,VSV)、麻疹病毒(measles virus,MV)、腺病毒 (adenovirus,AdV)和牛痘病毒(vaccinia virus,VV)等。此外,新型OV的构建和与传统疗法的联合研究也取得了显著进展。文章综述了近5年来常见OV在BC治疗领域的研究进展,肯定了OV的巨大潜力。
Abstract
Breast cancer(BC),as the most common malignant tumor among women globally,has become a significant public health issue worldwide. Although improvements in early diagnosis and treatment technologies,the therapeutic outcomes remain less than satisfactory. BC,characterized by its high heterogeneity and multiple molecular subtypes,poses a considerable challenge to treatment due to its complex biological properties. Traditional chemotherapy and immunotherapy suffer from issues such as insufficient precision, severe side effects,and the tendency to develop drug resistance,thus highlighting the urgent need to develop new therapeutic strategies. Oncolytic viruses(OV)have emerged as an innovative cancer treatment method. Their uniqueness lies in the ability to precisely identify and attack cancer cells while simultaneously activating the body’s immune system to combat cancer. Currently, various OVs have been applied in cancer therapy,including herpes simplex virus(HSV),newcastle disease virus(NDV),vesicular stomatitis virus(VSV),measles virus(MV),adenovirus(AdV),and vaccinia virus(VV). Moreover,significant progress has been made in the construction of novel OV and the combination with traditional therapies. This article reviews the research progress of common OV in the field of BC treatment over the past five years,thus affirming the great potential of OV.
乳腺癌(breast cancer,BC)是女性发病率最高的恶性肿瘤[1],根据国际癌症研究机构的最新结果,女性BC的发病率占全球癌症总数的11.6%[2]。BC的分子亚型主要包括Luminal A型、Luminal B型、人表皮生长因子受体⁃2(human epidermal growth factor 2, HER ⁃ 2)阳性型和三阴性乳腺癌(triple ⁃ negative breast cancer,TNBC),这些亚型在发病率、生物学特性和治疗反应等方面存在显著差异,是制定个性化治疗方案的重要依据[3]。其中TNBC是最严重的类型[4],具有高复发性和转移性,目前缺乏有效的靶向疗法,标准治疗手段效果有限且复发风险高[5]。此外,癌细胞在免疫编辑的复杂过程中,可以巧妙规避免疫监视,在免疫抑制的环境中发展和扩散,这不仅加剧了BC的恶性程度,也为治疗带来了更大难度[6]。因此,针对该疾病的治疗策略亟需改进和完善。
溶瘤病毒疗法(oncolytic virus therapy,OVT)是一种正被广泛研究的新型生物疗法。临床上使用的大多数溶瘤病毒(oncolytic virus,OV)都是由减毒或非致病性毒株改造而成的[7],通过利用肿瘤细胞与正常细胞在遗传特征和表观遗传上的差异,如原癌基因激活、抑癌基因失活、肿瘤细胞表面受体高表达、缺氧酸性的肿瘤微环境(tumor microenvironment,TME) 以及信号通路异常等,OV 可以选择性地识别并在肿瘤细胞中复制,而不影响正常细胞生长[8-9]。如脑胶质瘤细胞高表达CD155(脊髓灰质炎病毒受体),使得脊髓灰质炎病毒能够特异性地识别并结合 CD155,从而进入肿瘤细胞,正常细胞在感染脊髓灰质炎病毒后可以通过表达干扰素(interferon,IFN)和 p53介导的细胞凋亡清除病毒,而肿瘤细胞由于这一途径缺陷失去抗病毒能力[10]。人们最早在白血病患者中发现了 OV[11],而后发现狂犬病疫苗可以抑制宫颈癌,引发了研究者对某些病毒抗瘤功能的思考。随后的研究中发现了许多具有杀灭肿瘤细胞功能的病毒,从而形成了OVT的概念。最初的研究主要集中在天然野生病毒上。20世纪50年代的一项临床试验使用了野生型和非工程化腺样体咽结膜病毒治疗宫颈癌[12]。随着基因工程技术的发展,重组选择性增强病毒和治疗性转基因OV也得到了广泛研究[13-14]。目前,OVT的研究尚在初级阶段,但已有数款产品获得临床批准。表1介绍了当前OV产品获批上市情况。OVT 的给药途径多样,包括静脉、皮内、瘤内、动脉、胆道内注射[15] 及纳米颗粒递送等[16]。虽然目前尚无被批准专门用于BC治疗的 OV,但近年来大量的临床前试验证明了 OVT 应用于BC的巨大潜力。
1目前OV产品获批上市情况
Table1The current approval and marketing status of OV products
1 OV
1.1 基因工程改造
OV 凭借其对肿瘤细胞精准的识别与摧毁能力,及对正常细胞的无害性,正逐渐成为备受瞩目的治疗手段。研究者们通过对OV进行基因工程改造来调控其抗癌活性,主要包括3种机制。
1.1.1 Ⅰ型IFN信号通路调控
已有研究发现,下调Ⅰ型 IFN 信号通路(尤其是 IFN⁃β)能有效削弱肿瘤细胞防御[26],使OV能更轻易地攻击肿瘤细胞并使其裂解[27-28],这一过程中 OV与肿瘤细胞对IFN的敏感性降低是关键。也有临床前研究显示,在用水疱炎病毒(vesicular stoma⁃ titis virus,VSV)治疗肝细胞癌时,IFN信号能引导病毒和肿瘤反应性T细胞共同作用,激发溶瘤反应和宿主免疫反应[29]
1.1.2 肿瘤特异性启动子
通过将肿瘤或组织特异性启动子加入OV中来转录目标基因序列,使得OV能在肿瘤细胞中快速复制而在正常细胞中被限制复制[30]。传统使用同源重组技术,但存在过程复杂和效率低的局限性[31]。为解决这一问题,Yuan 等[32] 使用了 CRISPR ⁃Cas9 系统(一种基于细菌免疫机制的基因编辑工具,能够特异性地识别和切割 DNA),使效率提高了 3%。此外,Terada等[33] 利用细菌人工染色体的骨架可以通过顺序、位点特异性重组与目的启动子进行有效交换的特性,在单纯疱疹病毒(herpes simplex virus,HSV) 上插入各种病毒启动子来表达荧光素酶蛋白。以增强型绿色荧光蛋白标记的表达载体和目的基因插入到黏液瘤OV中,有效地进行了重组克隆[34]。此外,为了确定插入位点,转座子插入策略已被广泛应用于无偏见的扫描基因组。Kretschemer 等[35] 利用一种细菌转座子Tn7在AdV基因组中找到了几个基于启动子的表达插入位点。
1.1.3 基因沉默
研究将OV在正常细胞中复制所必需的基因删除,使其只能在肿瘤细胞中复制[36]。双链干扰 RNA 可以引导Argonaute蛋白通过碱基配对靶向肿瘤细胞 RNA,从而实现肿瘤内的基因沉默[37]。重要的是,OV 不仅含有介导复制的基因序列,还含有改变TME的基因序列[27]。TME 的改变可引发先天性和适应性免疫反应,抑制肿瘤血管生成,从而导致肿瘤细胞死亡[38]。虽然这最初可能会限制OV在肿瘤细胞中的扩散,但是病毒诱导的细胞裂解和危险相关分子模式能够克服免疫抑制并促进抗肿瘤免疫[39]。为了防止 OV 传播到健康细胞中,针对病毒产生的中和抗体和细胞因子会启动免疫反应。然而,OV 在癌症治疗中的临床应用仍面临一些挑战,尤其是其对人体的毒性和致病性方面。积极应对这些挑战对于更广泛地应用OVT并提高其有效性至关重要[30]
1.2 抗肿瘤机制
OV 抗肿瘤机制主要包括以下几点:直接感染并溶解癌细胞,从而发挥细胞毒性作用;感染并破坏血管内皮细胞,进而吸引中性粒细胞,促进凝血和血栓形成,这不仅破坏肿瘤血管供应,还抑制新生血管生成;吸引树突状细胞、巨噬细胞、中性粒细胞和T细胞等免疫细胞进入TME,有效地将原本免疫反应较弱的“冷”肿瘤转变为免疫反应活跃的 “热”肿瘤;被溶解的癌细胞释放出危险相关分子模式、病原体相关分子模式和肿瘤特异性抗原,这些分子被树突状细胞识别后,能够激活CD4+ T细胞和 CD8+ T 细胞,进而对癌细胞进行特异性杀伤;通过转基因技术靶向表达特定基因,可以进一步增强 OV的抗肿瘤效果[40]
1.3 分型
目前用于 OVT 研究的病毒包括 HSV、腺病毒 (adenovirus,AdV)、流感病毒、牛痘病毒(vaccinia virus,VV)、柯萨奇病毒、麻疹病毒(measles virus, MV)、脊髓灰质炎相关病毒、逆转录病毒、呼肠孤病毒(reovirus,RV)、副病毒 H1、VSV、新城疫病毒 (newcastle disease virus,NDV)等,它们各自独特的生物学特性,为癌症治疗提供了多样化选择[39]。研究人员综合考量安全性、给药途径、免疫反应等因素,选出最具潜力的候选药物,为开发针对BC及其他恶性肿瘤的新型疗法奠定了基础[37]表2展示了近5年应用于BC研究的部分OV类型及其代表。
2应用于乳腺癌OVT研究的部分OV类型及其代表
Table2Several types of OV and their representatives applied in OVT studies for breast cancer
(续表2)
2 BC中的OV
2.1 AdV
作为最常用于BC OVT研究的OV之一[40],AdV 因其特异性靶向癌细胞的潜力备受关注。Robert 等[51] 评估了一种环氧合酶⁃2启动子控制的AdV,其经过载体Ad5/3纤维修饰并编码人类钠碘同向转运体,结果显示该病毒在 BC 细胞中具有增强的溶瘤作用,而对正常乳腺细胞无活性。也有研究表明,组蛋白去乙酰化酶抑制剂能有效增强AdV的抗肿瘤作用[52]。此外,利用人AdV52对癌细胞具有特异性杀伤能力而对正常组织损害小的特点,Naveed等[53] 分析了乳腺癌1型易感蛋白与AdV52蛋白的三级结构,揭示了其在癌症治疗领域的潜在应用价值。Liu 等[54] 还发现胸腺酶α1能重编程TME,使其转变为抗肿瘤免疫状态,提升了AdV的抗瘤效果。
很多研究者还进行了AdV重建。Ang等[55] 开发了携带趋化因子的病毒Ad5F11bSP⁃Rantes,在小鼠模型中抑制肿瘤生长的效果达88.33%。Li等[56] 研究了重组AdV(Ad⁃VT)、化疗药物阿霉素和内分泌治疗药物他莫昔芬对BC细胞的影响,结果表明Ad⁃VT能有效抑制癌细胞增殖。胆固醇代谢紊乱与 TNBC 转移紧密相关,而载脂蛋白 A1 在调控胆固醇外排和细胞内平衡中起关键作用,因此 Dong 等[57] 将 AdV 与其结合,研究显示重建病毒能促进胆固醇外排,抑制肿瘤生长,减少肺转移,显著延长 TNBC 小鼠的生存期。Xu 等[58] 则开发了两种新型 AdV (AdLyp.St 和 mHAdLyp.St),在人 BC 免疫缺陷小鼠模型中引发了强烈的抗肿瘤和抗转移反应。
2.2 VV
VV 是一种独特的双链 DNA 病毒,可以在细胞质中复制,具有较大的基因组,可以插入大的转基因片段,并且不会整合到宿主细胞染色体中[59]。但在TME中的分布不足限制了其效果,Kim等[60] 证明了角蛋白作为VV递送载体能显著增强抗肿瘤免疫反应,且不影响病毒的抗血管生成作用。凝集素在乳腺癌治疗中显示出巨大潜力,之前有研究构建了 4 种插入海洋凝集素(Tachypleus tridentatus lectin, Aphrocallistes vastus lectin,white⁃spotted charr lectin 和 Asterina pectinifera lectin)的 VV 毒株,Zhou 等[61] 评估了它们在BC细胞中的抗肿瘤活性,发现Aphro⁃ callistes vastus lectin 的增强抗肿瘤免疫反应效果最佳。还有研究探索了一种VV对肿瘤免疫微环境的影响及其提升肿瘤细胞对程序化细胞死亡配体 1 (programmed cell death⁃ligand 1,PD⁃L1)抑制剂敏感性的潜力。研究发现,该病毒能增加TNBC 细胞的 PD⁃L1表达,并促进CD8+ T细胞在肿瘤组织中的浸润[62]。目前大多数VV均通过胸苷激酶缺失进行修饰,细胞周期蛋白依赖性激酶抑制剂p21与胸苷激酶存在着分子层面的相互作用,但p21基因敲低是否会干扰胸苷激酶阴性VV的抗肿瘤作用仍未确定。最近有研究显示,p21的靶向抑制会加速BC细胞的增殖和迁移,并损害胸苷激酶阴性VV的肿瘤杀伤作用[63]
2.3 HSV
HSV 是一种双链 DNA 病毒[64]。它的病毒粒子有4个组成部分:DNA核心、二十碳五面体衣壳、无定形蛋白质外壳以及携带糖蛋白的脂质双层包膜[65]。它以HSV⁃1和HSV⁃2的形式存在,其中HSV⁃2通常与性传播疾病有关,而HSV⁃1与口腔和皮肤感染有关。HSV⁃1已被广泛用于肝细胞癌的OVT,然而在临床应用中还存在一些挑战,包括载体工程的复杂性、短期稳定性问题和影响正常组织的风险[66],应用于 BC 治疗的 OV 临床前试验有待进一步探索。 OV G471⁃mIL12编码白细胞介素12,能特异性消灭癌细胞并激发抗肿瘤免疫。在小鼠TNBC 模型中,该病毒显著降低了肿瘤负荷和转移,增加免疫细胞浸润,减少粒细胞和单核的髓系来源免疫抑制细胞,治疗后脾脏中树突状细胞显著迁移,TME中树突状细胞被激活并迁移到淋巴器官激活免疫细胞[41]
美国食品药品监督管理局已批准 HSV 作为癌症免疫疗法,但其疗效主要限于少数患者,原因在于肿瘤的耐药性。Noh 等[67] 通过 RNA 测序技术识别了HSV耐药性相关分子靶点,并揭示了其诱导耐药性的机制。构建了一种新型 HSV(HSV⁃d11mt),该病毒分泌修饰的胰岛素样生长因子2受体结构域 11作为诱饵受体并将其选择性阻断,提高了细胞毒性,减少了免疫抑制和促血管生成因子的分泌,增加了CD8+ 细胞毒性T淋巴细胞的浸润,从而提高荷瘤小鼠的存活率。此外,研究者Nabi等[68] 利用重组技术开发了突变型HSV⁃1,发现其能增强机体抗肿瘤反应,控制肿瘤转移,改善T细胞反应性并减少肿瘤生物标志物的表达。Nectin4是一种肿瘤相关抗原,广泛存在于多种癌症中,目前,针对Nectin4的药物和临床试验有限。Andrea Vannini 团队开发了 R⁃421,一种高度特异性针对Nectin4的HSV,能有效消灭癌细胞,保护正常细胞,抑制肿瘤生长[69]。在研究 HSV⁃1 病毒复制和传播时,UL37 脱酰胺酶在 C819 位点的作用至关重要,影响病毒生命周期。 Clark等[70] 通过重组病毒FC819S和VC2C819S,研究了UL37脱酰胺酶与gK/UL20蛋白复合物的相互作用。结果表明,VC2C819S复制能力更强,而FC819S 感染会引发更强烈的粒细胞⁃巨噬细胞集落刺激因子分泌。尽管存在多种HSV载体,但针对胶质细胞源性神经营养因子受体α1 的研究不多。Hall 等[71] 构建了具有针对性的 HSV,结果显示,靶向 HSV 能有效感染和杀伤BC细胞,并在体内诱导肿瘤消退。
2.4 VSV
VSV是一种非致病性负义ssRNA病毒,它对正常细胞中Ⅰ型IFN的抗病毒活性非常敏感,但对肿瘤细胞却不敏感,这使它能在肿瘤细胞中快速复制[72]。研究调查了VSV抑制TNBC的能力,在小鼠和人类的 TNBC 细胞中评估了重组 VSV(VSVd51) 的细胞毒性,验证了它对抗肿瘤免疫反应的影响。通过招募自然杀伤 T 细胞(natural killer T cells, NKT)和 CD8+ T细胞,VSV发挥了显著的治疗效果。这种对免疫反应的影响表明,VSV与免疫检查点抑制剂(immune checkpoint inhibitor,ICI)联用具有增强 TNBC疗效的潜力[49]。近期还有研究通过生产两种不同的VSV野生型和突变型(M51R)基质(M)蛋白构建体,探讨了VSV中M蛋白在BC细胞系中的作用,结果显示这两种蛋白可以通过增加自噬过程中的关键蛋白Beclin⁃1的表达引起自噬诱导的细胞死亡[73]
2.5 MV
早在2006年,就有报告指出MV有治疗BC的潜力。一项研究报告称,感染一种能产生癌胚抗原 (carcinoembryonic antigen,CEA)的 MV(MV ⁃ CEA) 后,BC细胞系MDA⁃MB⁃231在体外死亡,研究者还通过建立皮下异种移植,测试了MV⁃CEA在体内的抗肿瘤能力并得出结论:MV⁃CEA在体外和体内对 TNBC 都有很强的疗效[74]。目前,对放疗和化疗的耐药性仍然是 BC 治疗的主要困难之一,近期有研究表明,MV 减毒埃德蒙斯顿 B 疫苗株能显著提升 BC 细胞对阿霉素和电离辐射的敏感性[75]。Zheng 等[76] 还证明了一种重组MV疫苗株Hu191可以通过诱导 BC 细胞凋亡、抑制增殖和促进衰老等多方面机制发挥抗肿瘤作用,进一步增加了MV用于BC治疗的希望。还有研究评估了MV减毒疫苗对具有功能性 BRCA1/BRCA2 基因的伊拉克患者来源的 BC 细胞的作用,并与MCF⁃7和CAL⁃51细胞系的活性进行比较。研究证明MV减毒疫苗作为抗癌手段有效且安全,对伊拉克当地 BC AMJ13 细胞系有显著影响[77]。但是单一MV疗法的效果仍然有限。植物化学熊果酸(ursolic acid,UA)是一种 BC 治疗候选药物,研究者们探索了UA与靶向BC标志物Nectin4的 MV和抗BC抗原的联合使用,结果表明,体外与UA 联合使用可协同增强MV对人BC细胞的杀伤作用。此外,为了规避UA的低溶解度和低生物利用度并加强其临床适用性,研究者还通过纳米乳化进一步开发了UA纳米粒子,表现出更好的药物溶出度,并且与 MV具有相似的协同诱导BC细胞凋亡的作用[78]
2.6 NDV
NDV属于负义ssRNA病毒,其中AF2240株系是最有效的NDV之一,能够刺激BC细胞凋亡[79-80]。在 TNBC细胞中,AF2240可通过调控不同细胞因子的水平(例如抑制白介素6的分泌)诱导肿瘤消退[80]。根据最新的研究,AMHA1 株也被证明有抗肿瘤作用,研究者们通过分析病毒复制动力学证明了它可以感染和杀死增殖的肿瘤球体中的BC细胞[81]。癌细胞会通过增加糖酵解速率以满足其生存的能量需求,并产生 ATP 作为生长和增殖的主要能量来源。干扰糖酵解途径可能是一种有效的抗肿瘤策略。有研究评估了NDV对BC细胞糖酵解途径的影响,结果显示NDV感染的癌细胞表现出己糖激酶活性、丙酮酸和ATP浓度以及酸度的下降,糖酵解活性也显著降低,但没有观察到对正常细胞的影响[82]。此外,还有研究者使用D⁃甘露己酮糖(一种特异性己糖激酶抑制剂)来抑制糖酵解,显著增强了NDV的抗肿瘤作用[83]。研究者们为了进一步提高NDV的抗肿瘤效果,还对其进行了基因改造。Ortega⁃Rivera等[84] 评估了重组NDV在BC小鼠模型中的抗肿瘤活性,结果表明其存在给药途径依赖性,经过全身给药可显著减少肺组织中肿瘤的体积、脾指数和大量转移性克隆形成集落,并增加肿瘤的抑制率,而瘤内给药则无效。
3 联合疗法
3.1 与化疗联合
由于 BC 的高度异质性,单一疗法往往效果不佳。比如化疗在杀灭肿瘤细胞的同时也会杀伤正常细胞,还有骨髓抑制等不良反应,部分患者甚至因此放弃化疗[85]。因此将 OV 疗法与化疗相结合,用于BC的治疗,是一种极具前景的治疗策略,其效果在其他癌症治疗中也得到了证实。例如,Mori 等[86] 报道了一例铂类耐药卵巢癌患者的病例,该患者有长期的治疗史,传统疗法难以起效,与OV联用展示出了更好的疗效。Berry等[87] 深入探究了阿霉素与RV的联合应用在治疗TNBC方面的疗效。研究显示,该结合体在TNBC 细胞中展现出显著增强的细胞毒性,同时并未对病毒的生物学特性造成影响。之后也有研究者将一种microRNA 修饰的柯萨奇病毒B3与阿霉素结合,并证明了其提升治疗效果的能力[88]。除了阿霉素之外,还有研究者探讨了重组AdV和环磷酰胺联合治疗BC的疗效,结果显示,联合治疗更显著地抑制了BC细胞并降低了正常细胞中环磷酰胺的毒性[89]。此外,Wang等[90] 还将该病毒与紫杉醇联合,也取得了相似的疗效。BC脑转移的患者治疗方式十分有限,最近有研究将一种HSV 与替莫唑胺联用,提高了小鼠巨噬细胞的吞噬作用、NKT细胞毒性以及BC脑转移小鼠的存活率[91]
3.2 OV与ICI联合
免疫疗法是近年来新兴的肿瘤疗法。靶向程序化细胞死亡受体 1(programmed cell death⁃1,PD⁃1)/ PD⁃L1或细胞毒性T淋巴细胞相关抗原4的ICI因其疗效持久成为最重要的免疫疗法之一[92-94],被应用于包含BC在内的多种癌症治疗[95]。然而它们的临床效能因为各种原因受到很大限制,如杀伤性T细胞的耗竭、TME中免疫抑制性T细胞的募集[96-97] 以及 ICI 缓解率低等问题[98-99],使得大量 TNBC患者无法从单一 ICI 治疗中获益,需要额外疗法来提升ICI的疗效。OV 具有选择性复制和溶解肿瘤细胞的特点,但由于 TME 的免疫抑制,OV 的作用仍然有限[9]。已有研究证明 OV 可以在 TNBC 模型中招募TME中的免疫细胞,还可以上调BC细胞中PD⁃L1 的表达,增强ICI疗效[100]。因此,OV和ICI的组合可能是克服 TME 免疫抑制的有效策略。Zhang 等[101] 证明了AdV与抗PD⁃L1和抗细胞毒性T淋巴细胞相关抗原⁃4 联合使用可以显著抑制TNBC模型中的肿瘤生长并延长生存期。Tang等[98] 构建了Smac⁃武装溶瘤病毒(VSV⁃S),用于治疗原位小鼠模型中的 TNBC,并与抗 PD⁃1 抗体联合应用,并发现肿瘤中 PD⁃L1表达升高,肺转移被抑制,提高了生存率。
3.3 与嵌合抗原受体 T(chimeric antigen receptor⁃ T,CAR⁃T)细胞疗法联合
CAR⁃T 细胞疗法作为免疫治疗的一种重要创新手段,在血液恶性肿瘤治疗中有效[102],但在实体瘤治疗中面临诸多挑战,如识别最佳抗原、有效运输、浸润和在免疫抑制性肿瘤内的持久性等问题,导致疗效降低和潜在毒性[103]。目前大多数针对实体瘤的CAR⁃T细胞疗法尚未获得批准[104]。OV可携带治疗性转基因以促进CAR⁃T细胞激活,能在免疫抑制的TME 中维持细胞毒性功能并提供信号以逆转肿瘤免疫抑制,OV 对癌细胞的直接裂解作用可导致肿瘤细胞死亡并释放肿瘤相关抗原[105]。许多研究证明了OV与CAR⁃T细胞疗法联合使用可增强抗肿瘤效果。例如,Zhu等[106] 证明了HSV⁃1型通过促进肿瘤内 T 细胞浸润和 IFN⁃ γ的释放可增强 CD⁃70特异性CAR⁃T细胞的治疗效果。Evgin等[29] 研究表明,当与CAR⁃T细胞结合时,VV可以通过促进肿瘤抗原的释放和创造支持CAR⁃T细胞活化和细胞毒性的炎症环境来增强抗肿瘤免疫反应。此外,还有研究显示,通过AdV转导,CAR可以有效地在T细胞表面表达,使T细胞能够靶向并消灭癌细胞,还可以增强CAR⁃T细胞的持久性和抗肿瘤活性[107]
3.4 与NKT联合
NKT是脂质反应性T淋巴细胞的一个群体,在肿瘤免疫监视和控制中发挥重要作用[108-109]。与传统的T细胞不同,NKT表达固定的重排T细胞受体α 链(小鼠 Vα14⁃Jα18 和人类 Vα24⁃Jα18),能够识别主要组织相容性分子CD1d所呈现的内源性和外源性糖脂[110-111],可以释放细胞毒性分子直接杀死肿瘤细胞[112]。用糖脂激活 NKT 可防止肿瘤进展,并且 NKT的浸润与良好的预后相关[109]。由于化疗药物存在剂量限制性、毒性和剧烈的不良反应[113-115],现在很多研究开始探索 NKT 疗法与 OV 相结合的效果。Nelson 等[116] 采用 4T1 TNBC 模型,研究了表达 RV衍生融合相关小跨膜蛋白p14(VSV⁃p14)或p15 (VSV⁃p15)的溶瘤性水泡性口炎病毒(VSVΔM51)单独应用及与NKT联合应用的治疗效果。结果显示,联合使用时,VSV⁃p14和VSV⁃p15在所有小鼠中将转移性肺负担降低到不可检测的水平,并产生免疫记忆,肿瘤杀伤和细胞因子产生增多。此外,还有研究比较了联合 VSV 或 RV 的疗效。结果表明,VSV 和 RV治疗后的NKT活化在ID8模型中介导的生存率都高于单独治疗。在4T1模型中,VSV联合NKT比单独治疗更好地提高了总生存期,降低了转移性负担。相比之下,RV则无此效果[117]
4 面临的挑战
OVT作为一种癌症治疗的创新手段,其独特之处在于能够特异性地在肿瘤细胞内复制并最终溶解这些细胞,同时破坏肿瘤血管并激发免疫反应,从而将原本对免疫系统反应迟滞的肿瘤转变为易于被免疫系统攻击的肿瘤。这些病毒能够携带特定基因在肿瘤细胞内表达,产生抗肿瘤因子,维持长期的抗肿瘤效果,因此被视为治疗 BC 的潜在药物。然而,目前在临床应用中仍存在挑战。例如病毒的扩散,TME内的物理屏障细胞外基质(extracel⁃ lular matrix,ECM)会阻碍抗癌药物在实体肿瘤中的分布,已有研究证明表达ECM降解酶的OV,如编码松弛素和核心蛋白聚糖的 AdV 可以选择性地降解 ECM,增强病毒在肿瘤中的扩散[118],还有研究使OV 表达高融合性包膜糖蛋白,诱导合胞体形成,从而通过癌细胞间的直接融合促进病毒扩散[119]。另一个挑战在于,OV有进入正常细胞的风险,导致脱靶效应[120]。此外,在全身给药后,免疫清除也成为OV 应用的一大障碍,尤其在预先存在抗病毒抗体的患者中更为突出,严重阻碍了病毒到达 TME,因此需要瘤内注射[121],但这种方式仅适用于表浅或易接近的肿瘤,难以满足转移性或多发性肿瘤的治疗需求,这使得探索OVT新型给药方式尤为重要。近年来,基于细胞的递送载体成为最具潜力的OV递送载体之一。将OV隐藏入细胞载体中,可以规避宿主免疫系统对OV的识别。间充质细胞和神经干细胞已被证实具有肿瘤归巢特性,可用于递送OV到肿瘤。目前,细胞递送载体已被成功应用于NDV、AdV、HSV ⁃1、MV和VSV的递送[122]。最近在纳米技术和基因修饰方面的进展也提供了创新的解决方案来保护OV 免受免疫反应的影响,并增强它们对癌细胞的选择性,从而增加它们在TME中的扩散[123-124]。选择合适患者是又一挑战。接受OVT的患者多经多线治疗,免疫系统可能受损。通过预测性生物标志物筛选患者并监测免疫反应,例如 IFN 信号通路和 IFN 刺激基因,可精准识别潜在受益者,提高疗效[125]
总之,随着研究和临床试验不断探索这一颇具潜力的前沿领域,OVT的临床安全性和有效性在不断提升,未来必将会为更多的肿瘤患者带来希望。
利益冲突声明:
所有作者声明无利益冲突。陈宗浩和陈磊的作者单位与期刊出版部都隶属南京医科大学,但无利益冲突。
Conflict of Interests:
The authors declare no conflict of interest. The affiliations of the authors CHEN Zonghao and CHEN Lei,as well as the journal’s editorial department,all belong to Nanjing Medical University. However,there is no conflict of interest in this work.
作者贡献声明:
陈宗浩负责文献查询、撰写初稿并对文章进行后续修改;吴穹和陈磊提供监督指导并参与写作审编。
Authors Contributions:
CHEN Zonghao was in charge of literature search,writing the original draft and revising the article. WU Qiong and CHEN Lei provided supervision and participated in writing review and editing.
1目前OV产品获批上市情况
Table1The current approval and marketing status of OV products
2应用于乳腺癌OVT研究的部分OV类型及其代表
Table2Several types of OV and their representatives applied in OVT studies for breast cancer
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