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通讯作者:

彭卫,E⁃mail:pwking@sina.com

中图分类号:R654.2

文献标识码:A

文章编号:1007-4368(2021)06-927-05

DOI:10.7655/NYDXBNS20210624

参考文献 1
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参考文献 16
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参考文献 21
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参考文献 22
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参考文献 24
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参考文献 25
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参考文献 26
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参考文献 32
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参考文献 33
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参考文献 34
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参考文献 35
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目录contents

    摘要

    先天性心脏病被认为和甲状腺激素密切相关,经过体外循环的先心手术可导致甲状腺激素显著降低,而甲状腺功能减退亦可影响心脏术后康复。术后甲状腺激素替代治疗虽作为一种可行方法,但目前尚没有明确证据能够表明它的价值, 且心脏手术后常规应用甲状腺激素纠正儿童正常甲状腺病态综合征(euthyroid sick syndrome,ESS)的方法尚未建立。文章通过阐述先天性心脏病与甲状腺功能减退的关系,来初步探讨甲状腺激素替代治疗的可行性。

    Abstract

    Congenital heart disease is thought to be closely related to thyroid hormones. Surgery for congenital heart disease with cardiopulmonary bypass can lead to a significant decrease in thyroid hormones,and hypothyroidism can also affect recovery from heart surgery. Postoperative thyroid hormone replacement therapy as a feasible method,but it does not provide clear evidence of the value of thyroid hormone therapy. The routine application of thyroid hormone after cardiac surgery to correct Euthyroid sick syndrome(ESS)in children has not been established. This paper discusses the relationship between congenital heart disease and hypothyroidism to explore the feasibility of thyroid hormone replacement therapy.

  • 无论是成人还是儿童,经过体外循环(cardio⁃ pulmonary bypass,CPB)的心脏手术都会导致术后甲状腺激素显著而持续的降低[1],而与成人相比,新生儿和婴幼儿CPB后甲状腺激素水平下降更为明显,这使他们更容易受到CPB诱导的暂时性甲状腺功能减退所致的不良影响[2]。术后低甲状腺素血症的程度与小儿心脏手术的重要结局指标有关,在很多研究中,术后甲状腺激素水平被认为是先天性心脏病(congenital heart disease,CHD)儿童手术预后的指标[3]。随着心率下降、心输出量降低和全身血管阻力的增加,人们日益关注心脏手术后甲状腺功能减退样症状的潜在危险性。

  • 1 甲状腺激素

  • 甲状腺素(thyroxine,T4)和三碘甲状腺原氨酸 (triiodothyronine,T3)是由甲状腺通过酪氨酸残基碘化为甲状腺球蛋白,T4通过脱碘酶转换为活性T3。 T4被认为是T3的前激素,其浓度是T3的100倍。然而,T3比T4的作用强5倍,对细胞甲状腺受体的亲和力大致是T4的10倍[4]。约80%的T3是T4在肝脏等外周组织中转化产生的;剩下的20%由甲状腺直接分泌。甲状腺激素的靶器官反应包括增加耗氧量和基础代谢率,并对钙、磷、碳水化合物、蛋白质和脂质代谢产生影响。对靶器官的影响既基于循环中的活性T3水平,也基于甲状腺受体水平。因此脱碘酶的活性对细胞内T3的产生至关重要,对维持正常细胞活性也至关重要[5-6]

  • 2 甲状腺激素对心血管系统影响

  • 2.1 甲状腺发育和心脏

  • 先天性甲状腺功能减退(congenital hypothyroid⁃ ism,CH)的发生率因遗传、地理区域和种族而异。 CHD被认为是世界上最常见的先天性畸形,占8%~12%,也是与CH相关畸形中最常见的。在大多数研究中,心脏异常被认为是CH患者最常见的合并异常,这一事实使人们提出假设,在胚胎期心脏和甲状腺发育中可能存在一些共同因素[7-8]

  • 2.2 甲状腺激素作用的主要靶器官

  • 心脏和心血管系统是甲状腺激素作用的主要靶器官,当甲状腺激素水平发生变化时,心脏功能发生显著变化。甲状腺激素的非基因组效应包括肌动蛋白聚合的增强、线粒体呼吸的调节、信使RNA翻译的影响以及某些蛋白激酶活性的改变。甲状腺激素基因组效应包括对肌球蛋白相关ATP酶基因的影响,从而间接影响肌球蛋白链的表达[5]。在生理和病理条件下,甲状腺激素的转录和非转录作用可能共同调节心肌和血管系统的功能[9]

  • 2.3 T3作用

  • T3可促进蛋白合成,增加心肌β⁃肾上腺素能受体的数目和反应,增强儿茶酚胺的正性肌力作用[10]; T3可提高血管平滑肌细胞肌浆网上Ca2+ ⁃ATP酶活性,促进肌浆网对胞浆中Ca2+ 的摄取,引起血管平滑肌舒张,降低血管阻力,减轻心脏前后负荷,改善心功能,增加心排量,所以肌浆网中Ca2+ 含量也是心肌细胞收缩的决定因素[11-12]

  • 3 正常甲状腺病态综合征(euthyroid sick syn⁃ drome,ESS)

  • 甲状腺激素通过调节心率、心肌收缩力和全身血管阻力来影响心脏功能。ESS,又称非甲状腺疾病综合征[13-14],指在严重急性和/或慢性非甲状腺疾病或严重创伤患者中血清甲状腺激素浓度降低,而促甲状腺激素(thyroid⁃stimulating hormone,TSH)正常或降低,临床上无甲状腺功能减退表现的一组综合征。ESS可能是机体自我反馈保护以降低机体基础代谢建立的保护性适应机制[15]。从早期新生儿心脏修复术、单心室姑息术到青少年外科手术的全部儿科心脏手术都可以导致ESS[16]。一些心血管疾病主要与低T3状态有关[17]。与典型甲状腺功能减退症不同,低T3综合征的特征是血清T3降低、T4正常和TSH水平较低,以及反三碘甲状腺原氨酸(re⁃ verse triiodothyronine,rT3)水平升高[18]。T3水平降低的机制尚未完全阐明,但可能与低温、血液稀释和炎症反应介质,包括白细胞介素(interleukin,IL)⁃6的激活有关[19]。血清T3水平的急性耗竭是否与血流动力学性能受损有关一直是临床和实验研究的主题。

  • 4 CPB与甲状腺激素

  • CPB是一种独特的组织损伤形式,可引起全身系统性炎症反应综合征,从而导致术后并发症发生率和病死率的上升。而炎性细胞因子(特别是IL⁃6) 则主要是通过抑制T4向T3的外周转化,与ESS的发生有关[16],以血清总三碘甲状腺原氨酸(total triio⁃ dothyronine,TT3)水平降低和TSH、T4水平正常为特征。有人认为CPB后出现的低心排血量和心血管系统高阻力的组合与甲状腺功能减退相似,由此推测可能与上述因素引起的甲状腺激素代谢改变有关[20-21]

  • 5 CH的心脏异常

  • CH是新生儿内分泌系统最常见的疾病之一。心脏异常是CH最相关的畸形,据报道,患有CH的婴儿发生先天性心血管畸形的几率相对较高,如室间隔缺损、房间隔缺损[21]

  • 甲状腺激素缺乏可引起心肌结构和功能异常,包括左室肥厚、可逆性舒张异常、全身血管阻力增高和收缩反应减弱[5]。T3改变心脏各通道的功能特点,细胞内钙和钾含量的变化可以增加细胞的变力性和变时性。T3通过增加收缩期细胞内钙含量及增强舒张期钙的清除来改善新生儿心肌功能,并可能使新生儿心肌恢复,接近正常功能。

  • 甲状腺激素除了增加外周血耗氧量,还可直接增加心肌收缩力。 T3直接作用于血管平滑肌细胞,通过扩张外周循环的小动脉来降低全身血管阻力[9]

  • 6 碘剂与甲状腺激素

  • 6.1 碘造影剂与甲状腺激素

  • 由于在心导管术中使用碘造影剂(iodic con⁃trast medium,ICM)以及局部使用含碘的防腐剂和敷料,CHD患儿通常会接触过量的碘,这种超生理剂量的碘暴露对大多数甲状腺功能正常个体的甲状腺功能没有重大影响,但在易感人群中可能导致甲状腺功能紊乱(甲状腺功能亢进和甲状腺功能减退)[22]。在最近一项儿童接触碘的病例对照研究中,25%的婴儿被诊断为甲状腺功能减退。Thaker等[23] 对CHD婴儿进行碘致甲状腺功能减退的前瞻性研究注意到,暴露于碘的手术次数与甲状腺功能减退症的发生密切相关。在最近的一个大型病例对照研究中,Kornelius等[24] 对台湾成人患者暴露于ICM进行了6年的随访,观察到2次或2次以上接触ICM的患者甲状腺功能减退的风险显著增加。在1项西班牙前瞻性研究中,99例先天性心脏畸形婴儿中,19例在冠状动脉造影术后2周出现甲状腺功能减退[25]。即使如此,经常接触多种来源过量碘的患儿,其甲状腺功能减退的严重程度和持续时间尚不清楚。研究表明,CHD患儿术后肾功能受损可能会阻碍尿碘的清除,可进一步增加甲状腺功能减退的风险,但是这两者之间的关系尚不明确。

  • 6.2 胺碘酮与甲状腺激素

  • 胺碘酮是一种高碘抗心律失常药,治疗室性和房性快速心律失常有效。胺碘酮中碘含量和结构与甲状腺激素类似,可引起甲状腺功能异常[26]。这主要是由于胺碘酮可以抑制T4向T3的转化,同时胺碘酮代谢释放的碘可以直接抑制甲状腺功能[27]

  • 7 治疗

  • 激素治疗已被尝试作为一种积极影响术后进程的方法,如围手术期给予皮质类固醇可使细胞膜稳定,降低HLA抗原的上调,抑制细胞因子的表达。甲状腺激素可调节代谢、免疫和心血管功能,并作为一种优化剂应用在围手术期,以抵消甲状腺激素在CPB后相对减少引起的不良反应[18]。目前许多学者提出甲状腺激素的补充治疗,但仍有争议。

  • T3的使用与改善血流动力学、降低外周血管阻力、增加心输出量等效应有关,这表明甲状腺激素替代物具有潜在效用[1]。许多动物研究提倡服用T3,认为对心脏有益。在缺血损伤后,补充T3可提高血流动力学指标,包括左心室功能[28-31]。Zhang等[32] 对2岁以下接受CPB心脏手术的患儿进行了多中心、双盲的随机对照实验研究。这项研究假设T3替代治疗是安全的,而且可使术后临床结果显著改善。他们还发现,T3替代治疗组撤除呼吸机时间和治疗组之间没有差异。但是对于5个月以下的患儿,T3替代治疗组与安慰剂组相比,中位撤机时间明显缩短,并观察到心脏功能的改善,正性肌力药物使用减少[31]。在接受CPB心脏手术的患儿中,术前口服小剂量甲状腺激素治疗可降低术后ESS的严重程度,并能防止心肌缺血再灌注损伤。1项研究也报道了术后口服T3可使术后撤机时间缩短[33]。 2018年Talwar等[34] 证明,口服T4可提高心脏指数,此外,还缩短了复杂CHD患儿手术后的机械通气时间、ICU时间和总住院时间。Bettendorf等[35] 的随机对照试验中,应用T3改善了心肌功能,减少了术后重症监护时间。由于甲状腺激素对生命早期的神经发育很重要,在这一时期低浓度的甲状腺激素可能会影响神经发育结果。但是,关于甲状腺补充治疗早产儿低甲状腺素血症的研究未发现有益效果[36]。最近一项研究发现短暂性低甲状腺素血症早产儿与19岁时的不良神经发育结果无关[37]。然而,接受心肺转流术的患儿补充T3并不能改善其长期神经发育结果[38]。长期随访神经发育结果,可能有助于得出明确结论。

  • 许多患儿在CPB术后出现短暂的甲状腺激素水平下降,通过标准治疗可以恢复。2项针对儿童的研究表明,TT3较低的患儿可能更需要干预[16]。 Bettendorf等[35] 报道,儿童心脏手术后血清T3水平低是不良预后的预测因子,T3治疗能显著改善心功能,而心功能可能是与预后最为相关的因素。

  • 迄今为止,多项关于甲状腺激素补充治疗的研究中,无论是给予生理剂量还是短期药物剂量,均未出现室上性心律失常、心率加快或心肌缺血的报道[39]。为了使血清T3水平恢复正常,大多数研究均采用短期静脉给药。虽然短期治疗可能有效,但并不能解决与长期治疗相关的问题。考虑到大部分研究纳入患儿为复杂型CHD,所以不仅要评估甲状腺激素替代治疗的疗效,最重要的是还需评估其治疗的安全性。

  • 8 小结和展望

  • 对于预防性甲状腺激素替代治疗是否能够降低CHD患儿术后病死率、并发症发病率和改善预后,还需要进行充分深入的研究。CHD患儿过量的ICM接触以及术后胺碘酮的使用是否对甲状腺功能造成一定影响,对此也需要进一步探讨。

  • 由于许多患儿术后没有表现出典型的甲状腺功能减退症状或体征,此类患儿很容易被漏诊或误诊[23],所以定期甲状腺功能监测可作为临床治疗的常规项目,成为疾病严重程度以及预后预测的指标。此外,调查儿童围手术期甲状腺功能的研究也需更加关注长期的神经发育和生长发育变化[35]

  • 参考文献

    • [1] MARWALI E M,CAESA P,DARMAPUTRI S,et al.Oral triiodothyronine supplementation decreases low cardiac output syndrome after pediatric cardiac surgery[J].Pedi⁃ atr Cardiol,2019,40(6):1238-1246

    • [2] CANTINOTTI M,LORENZONI V,STORTI S,et al.Thy⁃ roid and brain natriuretic peptide response in children un⁃ dergoing cardiac surgery for congenital heart disease⁃ age⁃ related variations and prognostic value[J].Circ J,2013,77(1):188-197

    • [3] GUO J,HONG Y,WANG Z,et al.Prognostic value of thy⁃ roid hormone FT3 in general patients admitted to the in⁃ tensive care unit[J].Biomed Res Int,2020(2020):6329548

    • [4] TAYLOR P N,ELIGAR V,MULLER I,et al.Combina⁃ tion thyroid hormone replacement;knowns and unknowns [J].Front Endocrinol(Lausanne),2019,10:706

    • [5] DE CASTRO A L,FERNANDES R O,ORTIZ V D,et al.Thyroid hormones improve cardiac function and decrease expression of pro⁃apoptotic proteins in the heart of rats 14 days after infarction[J].Apoptosis,2016,21(2):184-194

    • [6] SOTO⁃RIVERA C L,AGUS M S,SAWYER J E,et al.Pe⁃ diatric cardiac intensive care society 2014 consensus statement:pharmacotherapies in cardiac critical care hor⁃ mone replacement therapy[J].Pediatr Crit Care Med,2016,17(3 Suppl 1):S59-S68

    • [7] GHANDI Y,SANATKAR S A,HABIBI D,et al.Frequen⁃ cy of congenital cardiac malformations inthe neonates with congenital hypothyroidism[J].Iranian J Neonatol,2018,9(2):66-70

    • [8] BAK P,HJORTSHØJ C S,GAEDE P,et al.Subclinical hypothyroidism:a common finding in adult patients with cyanotic congenital heart disease[J].Congenit Heart Dis,2018,13(2):263-270

    • [9] FORINI F,NICOLINI G,PITTO L,et al.Novel insight in⁃ to the epigenetic and post⁃transcriptional control of cardi⁃ ac gene expression by thyroid hormone[J].Front Endocri⁃ nol(Lausanne),2019,10:601

    • [10] MOOLMAN J A.Thyroid hormone and the heart[J].Car⁃ diovasc J S Afr,2002,13(4):159-163

    • [11] HAFE M V,NEVES J S,VALE C,et al.The impact of thyroid hormone dysfunction on ischemic heart disease [J].Endocr Connect,2019,8(5):R76-R90

    • [12] AN S M,GILANI N,YUAN H,et al.Adverse transverse⁃ tubule remodeling in a rat model of heart failure is attenu⁃ ated with low ⁃ dose triiodothyronine treatment[J].Mol Med,2019,25(1):53

    • [13] NISTAL⁃NUÑO B.Euthyroid sick syndrome in paediatric and adult patients requiring extracorporeal circulatory support and the role of thyroid hormone supplementation:a review[J].Perfusion,2021,36(1):21-33

    • [14] KRYSIAK R,KEDZIA A,KOWALCZE K,et al.Euthy⁃ roid sick syndrome:an important clinical problem[J].Wi⁃ ad Lek,2017,70(2 pt 2):376-385

    • [15] 黄东亚,苗毅,李强,等.合并正常甲状腺病态综合征重症患者的治疗[J].南京医科大学学报(自然科学版),2013,33(12):1725-1727

    • [16] LERNER R K,GRUBER N,POLLAK U.Congenital heart disease and thyroid dysfunction:combination,association,and implication[J].World J Pediatr Congenit Heart Surg,2019,10(5):604-615

    • [17] JABBAR A,PINGITORE A,PEARCE S H,et al.Thyroid hormones and cardiovascular disease[J].Nat Rev Cardi⁃ ol,2017,14(1):39-55

    • [18] FLORES S,CHECCHIA P A.Inflammatory and neurohor⁃ monal modulation for congenital heart surgery:The quest continues[J].J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg,2018,156(3):1207-1208

    • [19] MAIDEN M J,TORPY D J.Thyroid hormones in critical illness[J].Crit Care Clin,2019,35(2):375-388

    • [20] KLEMPERER J D,KLEIN I L,OJAMAA K,et al.Triio⁃ dothyronine therapy lowers the incidence of atrial fibrilla⁃ tion after cardiac operations[J].Ann Thorac Surg,1996,61(5):1323-1327

    • [21] OLIVIERI A,STAZI M A,MASTROIACOVO P,et al.A population ⁃ based study on the frequency of additional congenital malformations in infants with congenital hypo⁃ thyroidism:data from the Italian Registry for Congenital Hypothyroidism(1991 ⁃ 1998)[J].J Clin Endocrinol Metab,2002,87(2):557-562

    • [22] LEE S Y,RHEE C M,LEUNG A M,et al.A review:radio⁃ graphic iodinated contrast media⁃induced thyroid dysfunc⁃ tion[J].J Clin Endocrinol Metab,2015,100(2):376-383

    • [23] THAKER V V,GALLER M F,MARSHALL A C,et al.Hypothyroidism in infants with congenital heart disease exposed to excess Iodine[J].J Endocr Soc,2017,1(8):1067-1078

    • [24] KORNELIUS E,JY C,YANG Y S,et al.Iodinated con⁃ trast media increased the risk of thyroid dysfunction:a 6⁃ Year retrospective cohort study[J].J Clin Endocrinol Metab,2015,100(9):3372-3379

    • [25] DEL CERRO MARÍN M,FERNÁNDEZ RUIZ A,GARCÍA⁃ GUERETA L,et al.Alteraciones de la función tiroidea en niños con cardiopatía congénita tras la realización de cateterismo con contrastes yodados[Thyroid function al⁃ terations in children with congenital cardiac disease after catheterization with iodinated contrast agents][J].Rev Esp Cardiol,2000,53(4):517-524

    • [26] TROHMAN R G,SHARMA P S,MCANINCH E A,et al.Amiodarone and thyroid physiology,pathophysiology,di⁃ agnosis and management[J].Trends Cardiovasc Med,2019,29(5):285-295

    • [27] KLEIN I,DANZI S.Thyroid disease and the heart[J].Cir⁃ culation,2007,116(15):1725-1735

    • [28] STAMATOULI A,BEDOYA P,YAVUZ S.Hypothyroid⁃ ism:cardiovascular endpoints of thyroid hormone replace⁃ ment[J].Front Endocrinol(Lausanne),2019,10:888

    • [29] RAZVI S,JABBAR A,PINGITORE A,et al.Thyroid hor⁃ mones and cardiovascular function and diseases[J].J Am Coll Cardiol,2018,71(16):1781-1796

    • [30] JANSSEN R,MULLER A,SIMONIDES W.Cardiac thy⁃ roid hormone metabolism and heart failure[J].Eur Thy⁃ roid J,2017,6(3):130-137

    • [31] PORTMAN M,SLEE A,OLSON A K,et al.Triiodothyro⁃ nine supplementation in infants and children undergoing cardiopulmonary bypass(TRICC):a multicenter placebo⁃ controlled randomized trial:ageanalysis[J].Circulation,2010,122(11Suppl):S224-S233

    • [32] ZHANG J Q,YANG Q Y,XUE F S,et al.Preoperative oral thyroid hormones to prevent euthyroid sick syndrome and attenuate myocardial ischemia ⁃ reperfusion injury af⁃ ter cardiac surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass in chil⁃ dren:A randomized,double⁃blind,placebo⁃controlled trial [J].Medicine(Baltimore),2018,97(36):e12100

    • [33] MARWALI E M,BOOM C E,BUDIWARDHANA N,et al.Oral triiodothyronine for infants and children undergo⁃ ing cardiopulmonary bypass[J].Ann Thorac Surg,2017,104(2):688-695

    • [34] TALWAR S,BHOJE A,KHADAGAWAT R,et al.Oral thyroxin supplementation in infants undergoing cardiac surgery:A double ⁃ blind placebo ⁃ controlled randomized clinical trial[J].J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg,2018,156(3):1209-1217

    • [35] BETTENDORF M,SCHMIDT K G,GRULICH⁃HENN J,et al.Tri⁃iodothyronine treatment in children after cardiac surgery:a double ⁃ blind,randomised,placebo ⁃ controlled study[J].Lancet,2000,356(9229):529-534

    • [36] LEEUWEN L,VAN HEIJST A,VAN ROSMALEN J,et al.Changes in thyroid hormone concentrations during neo⁃ natal extracorporeal membrane oxygenation[J].J Perina⁃ tol,2017,37(8):906-910

    • [37] HOLLANDERS J J,ISRAËLS J,VAN D S,et al.No asso⁃ ciation between transient hypothyroxinemia of prematurity and neurodevelopmental outcome in young adulthood[J].J Clin Endocrinol Metab,2015,100(12):4648-4653

    • [38] MITTNACHT J,CHOUKAIR D,KNEPPO C,et al.Long⁃ term neurodevelopmental outcome of children treated with tri⁃iodothyronine after cardiac surgery:follow⁃up of a double ⁃ blind,randomized,placebo controlled study[J].Horm Res Paediatr,2015,84:130-136

    • [39] KLEIN I,DANZI S.Thyroid hormone treatment to mend a broken heart[J].J Clin Endocrinol Metab,2008,93(4):1172-1174

  • 参考文献

    • [1] MARWALI E M,CAESA P,DARMAPUTRI S,et al.Oral triiodothyronine supplementation decreases low cardiac output syndrome after pediatric cardiac surgery[J].Pedi⁃ atr Cardiol,2019,40(6):1238-1246

    • [2] CANTINOTTI M,LORENZONI V,STORTI S,et al.Thy⁃ roid and brain natriuretic peptide response in children un⁃ dergoing cardiac surgery for congenital heart disease⁃ age⁃ related variations and prognostic value[J].Circ J,2013,77(1):188-197

    • [3] GUO J,HONG Y,WANG Z,et al.Prognostic value of thy⁃ roid hormone FT3 in general patients admitted to the in⁃ tensive care unit[J].Biomed Res Int,2020(2020):6329548

    • [4] TAYLOR P N,ELIGAR V,MULLER I,et al.Combina⁃ tion thyroid hormone replacement;knowns and unknowns [J].Front Endocrinol(Lausanne),2019,10:706

    • [5] DE CASTRO A L,FERNANDES R O,ORTIZ V D,et al.Thyroid hormones improve cardiac function and decrease expression of pro⁃apoptotic proteins in the heart of rats 14 days after infarction[J].Apoptosis,2016,21(2):184-194

    • [6] SOTO⁃RIVERA C L,AGUS M S,SAWYER J E,et al.Pe⁃ diatric cardiac intensive care society 2014 consensus statement:pharmacotherapies in cardiac critical care hor⁃ mone replacement therapy[J].Pediatr Crit Care Med,2016,17(3 Suppl 1):S59-S68

    • [7] GHANDI Y,SANATKAR S A,HABIBI D,et al.Frequen⁃ cy of congenital cardiac malformations inthe neonates with congenital hypothyroidism[J].Iranian J Neonatol,2018,9(2):66-70

    • [8] BAK P,HJORTSHØJ C S,GAEDE P,et al.Subclinical hypothyroidism:a common finding in adult patients with cyanotic congenital heart disease[J].Congenit Heart Dis,2018,13(2):263-270

    • [9] FORINI F,NICOLINI G,PITTO L,et al.Novel insight in⁃ to the epigenetic and post⁃transcriptional control of cardi⁃ ac gene expression by thyroid hormone[J].Front Endocri⁃ nol(Lausanne),2019,10:601

    • [10] MOOLMAN J A.Thyroid hormone and the heart[J].Car⁃ diovasc J S Afr,2002,13(4):159-163

    • [11] HAFE M V,NEVES J S,VALE C,et al.The impact of thyroid hormone dysfunction on ischemic heart disease [J].Endocr Connect,2019,8(5):R76-R90

    • [12] AN S M,GILANI N,YUAN H,et al.Adverse transverse⁃ tubule remodeling in a rat model of heart failure is attenu⁃ ated with low ⁃ dose triiodothyronine treatment[J].Mol Med,2019,25(1):53

    • [13] NISTAL⁃NUÑO B.Euthyroid sick syndrome in paediatric and adult patients requiring extracorporeal circulatory support and the role of thyroid hormone supplementation:a review[J].Perfusion,2021,36(1):21-33

    • [14] KRYSIAK R,KEDZIA A,KOWALCZE K,et al.Euthy⁃ roid sick syndrome:an important clinical problem[J].Wi⁃ ad Lek,2017,70(2 pt 2):376-385

    • [15] 黄东亚,苗毅,李强,等.合并正常甲状腺病态综合征重症患者的治疗[J].南京医科大学学报(自然科学版),2013,33(12):1725-1727

    • [16] LERNER R K,GRUBER N,POLLAK U.Congenital heart disease and thyroid dysfunction:combination,association,and implication[J].World J Pediatr Congenit Heart Surg,2019,10(5):604-615

    • [17] JABBAR A,PINGITORE A,PEARCE S H,et al.Thyroid hormones and cardiovascular disease[J].Nat Rev Cardi⁃ ol,2017,14(1):39-55

    • [18] FLORES S,CHECCHIA P A.Inflammatory and neurohor⁃ monal modulation for congenital heart surgery:The quest continues[J].J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg,2018,156(3):1207-1208

    • [19] MAIDEN M J,TORPY D J.Thyroid hormones in critical illness[J].Crit Care Clin,2019,35(2):375-388

    • [20] KLEMPERER J D,KLEIN I L,OJAMAA K,et al.Triio⁃ dothyronine therapy lowers the incidence of atrial fibrilla⁃ tion after cardiac operations[J].Ann Thorac Surg,1996,61(5):1323-1327

    • [21] OLIVIERI A,STAZI M A,MASTROIACOVO P,et al.A population ⁃ based study on the frequency of additional congenital malformations in infants with congenital hypo⁃ thyroidism:data from the Italian Registry for Congenital Hypothyroidism(1991 ⁃ 1998)[J].J Clin Endocrinol Metab,2002,87(2):557-562

    • [22] LEE S Y,RHEE C M,LEUNG A M,et al.A review:radio⁃ graphic iodinated contrast media⁃induced thyroid dysfunc⁃ tion[J].J Clin Endocrinol Metab,2015,100(2):376-383

    • [23] THAKER V V,GALLER M F,MARSHALL A C,et al.Hypothyroidism in infants with congenital heart disease exposed to excess Iodine[J].J Endocr Soc,2017,1(8):1067-1078

    • [24] KORNELIUS E,JY C,YANG Y S,et al.Iodinated con⁃ trast media increased the risk of thyroid dysfunction:a 6⁃ Year retrospective cohort study[J].J Clin Endocrinol Metab,2015,100(9):3372-3379

    • [25] DEL CERRO MARÍN M,FERNÁNDEZ RUIZ A,GARCÍA⁃ GUERETA L,et al.Alteraciones de la función tiroidea en niños con cardiopatía congénita tras la realización de cateterismo con contrastes yodados[Thyroid function al⁃ terations in children with congenital cardiac disease after catheterization with iodinated contrast agents][J].Rev Esp Cardiol,2000,53(4):517-524

    • [26] TROHMAN R G,SHARMA P S,MCANINCH E A,et al.Amiodarone and thyroid physiology,pathophysiology,di⁃ agnosis and management[J].Trends Cardiovasc Med,2019,29(5):285-295

    • [27] KLEIN I,DANZI S.Thyroid disease and the heart[J].Cir⁃ culation,2007,116(15):1725-1735

    • [28] STAMATOULI A,BEDOYA P,YAVUZ S.Hypothyroid⁃ ism:cardiovascular endpoints of thyroid hormone replace⁃ ment[J].Front Endocrinol(Lausanne),2019,10:888

    • [29] RAZVI S,JABBAR A,PINGITORE A,et al.Thyroid hor⁃ mones and cardiovascular function and diseases[J].J Am Coll Cardiol,2018,71(16):1781-1796

    • [30] JANSSEN R,MULLER A,SIMONIDES W.Cardiac thy⁃ roid hormone metabolism and heart failure[J].Eur Thy⁃ roid J,2017,6(3):130-137

    • [31] PORTMAN M,SLEE A,OLSON A K,et al.Triiodothyro⁃ nine supplementation in infants and children undergoing cardiopulmonary bypass(TRICC):a multicenter placebo⁃ controlled randomized trial:ageanalysis[J].Circulation,2010,122(11Suppl):S224-S233

    • [32] ZHANG J Q,YANG Q Y,XUE F S,et al.Preoperative oral thyroid hormones to prevent euthyroid sick syndrome and attenuate myocardial ischemia ⁃ reperfusion injury af⁃ ter cardiac surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass in chil⁃ dren:A randomized,double⁃blind,placebo⁃controlled trial [J].Medicine(Baltimore),2018,97(36):e12100

    • [33] MARWALI E M,BOOM C E,BUDIWARDHANA N,et al.Oral triiodothyronine for infants and children undergo⁃ ing cardiopulmonary bypass[J].Ann Thorac Surg,2017,104(2):688-695

    • [34] TALWAR S,BHOJE A,KHADAGAWAT R,et al.Oral thyroxin supplementation in infants undergoing cardiac surgery:A double ⁃ blind placebo ⁃ controlled randomized clinical trial[J].J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg,2018,156(3):1209-1217

    • [35] BETTENDORF M,SCHMIDT K G,GRULICH⁃HENN J,et al.Tri⁃iodothyronine treatment in children after cardiac surgery:a double ⁃ blind,randomised,placebo ⁃ controlled study[J].Lancet,2000,356(9229):529-534

    • [36] LEEUWEN L,VAN HEIJST A,VAN ROSMALEN J,et al.Changes in thyroid hormone concentrations during neo⁃ natal extracorporeal membrane oxygenation[J].J Perina⁃ tol,2017,37(8):906-910

    • [37] HOLLANDERS J J,ISRAËLS J,VAN D S,et al.No asso⁃ ciation between transient hypothyroxinemia of prematurity and neurodevelopmental outcome in young adulthood[J].J Clin Endocrinol Metab,2015,100(12):4648-4653

    • [38] MITTNACHT J,CHOUKAIR D,KNEPPO C,et al.Long⁃ term neurodevelopmental outcome of children treated with tri⁃iodothyronine after cardiac surgery:follow⁃up of a double ⁃ blind,randomized,placebo controlled study[J].Horm Res Paediatr,2015,84:130-136

    • [39] KLEIN I,DANZI S.Thyroid hormone treatment to mend a broken heart[J].J Clin Endocrinol Metab,2008,93(4):1172-1174

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