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通讯作者:

张丽,E⁃mail:neuro_zhangli@163.com

中图分类号:R742.5

文献标识码:A

文章编号:1007-4368(2021)09-1406-05

DOI:10.7655/NYDXBNS20210924

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目录contents

    摘要

    视幻觉是帕金森病中最常见的精神障碍,与帕金森病患者的生活质量受损密切相关,并对患者预后产生不利影响, 但其发病机制尚未明确。研究者发现视幻觉与脑部结构、视觉通路和注意网络及神经递质密切相关,在流行病学、组织病理学、临床特征等方面存在强有力的证据支持。本文结合国内外多学科研究成果,对帕金森病伴发视幻觉的发病机制进行探讨。

    Abstract

    Objective:Visual hallucination(VH)is the most common psychiatric symptom in Parkinson’s disease(PD),which is closely related to the impaired quality of life and adversely affects the prognosis of patients. However,its pathogenesis is not yet clear. VH has been found to have relationship with disturbance in brain structures,visual pathways and attention networks,as well as neurotransmitters,and there is strong evidence to support these findings in epidemiology,histopathology,clinical features and so on. Based on the results of multidisciplinary research at home and abroad,this paper is to discuss the pathogenesis of VH in PD.

  • 帕金森病(Parkinson’s disease,PD)是一种中老年常见的慢性神经退行性疾病。现我国PD患者至少300万,并随着人口老龄化而增加,将给我国的经济、医疗体系带来巨大负担[1]。PD临床上以静止性震颤、运动迟缓、肌强直、姿势不稳等运动症状为特征,PD还并发繁多复杂的非运动症状,包括精神障碍、睡眠障碍、认知功能障碍、自主神经功能障碍以及情绪改变等[2]。许多非运动症状在PD运动症状诊断前就已经出现,具有成为早期诊断标志物的潜力[3]。视幻觉(visual hallucination,VH)是最常见的PD相关精神障碍(psychosis associated with Parkin⁃ son disease,PDPsy),在PD人群中发生率为27%~50%[4]。VH被定义为缺乏相应的外部刺激作用于感觉器官而感知到的眼前虚构景象。PD疾病早期,未服用PD药物或未出现运动症状的患者可能出现轻微幻觉,包括存在性幻觉、通过性幻觉和视错觉[5];随着疾病的发展,视幻觉表现得更为生动和具体,内容大多数是人或动物,复杂性视幻觉通常发生在光线较弱的情况下,后期逐渐失去自知力。VH严重影响患者的生存质量,增加照料者的负担,与患者认知受损、死亡率增加密切相关 [6]。帕金森病视幻觉(Parkinson’s disease ⁃ visual hallucination,PD⁃VH)是一种复杂现象,确切的病理生理机制还不明确,国内尚缺乏PD⁃VH发病机制的相关综述,现结合国内外主要研究现状进行阐述。

  • 1 脑部结构

  • 神经病理学和脑成像研究为PD⁃VH相关病理改变及发生机制提供很多方法,脑部一些结构变化与VH密切相关,如边缘结构在视觉处理和执行功能中发挥重要作用,杏仁核参与情绪识别、应答和记忆相关的情绪调节,在VH发生发展中占有重要地位[7]

  • 1.1 路易小体

  • PD主要病理改变是黑质等多个区域多巴胺 (dopamine,DA)能神经元丢失,伴随含有α⁃突触核蛋白(α⁃synuclein,SNCA)的路易小体(Lewy bodies, LB)沉积[8]。经典Braak分期理论认为[9],LB病变按照时间顺序逐渐扩散,PD运动症状和非运动症状随之发展。最初,嗅球、肠神经系统、延髓和脑桥受累,即Ⅰ、Ⅱ期可出现嗅觉障碍、自主神经系统障碍、情绪变化和睡眠障碍等。PD发展到Ⅲ、Ⅳ期时,退行性变累及中脑、边缘系统、丘脑、基底前脑和内侧颞叶,可出现运动症状和记忆力下降。最后发展至Ⅴ、Ⅵ期阶段,前额叶、颞叶和顶叶皮质广泛受累,引起精神行为异常、痴呆等症状。但Marinus等[10] 根据PD非运动症状之间存在双向时间关联(如快速眼动睡眠期行为障碍、认知障碍、视幻觉),提出中枢和外周神经系统可能同时广泛存在LB病理。多项病理研究报告[11],VH与杏仁核(外侧基底部)、海马旁区、额叶、顶叶、颞叶(下部)皮质中高密度LB有很强的相关性,LB密度越高,幻觉出现越早。

  • 1.2 大脑灰质体积

  • 基于体素的形态学测量(voxel based morphome⁃ try,VBM)的多项研究发现,在非痴呆PD患者中,伴VH较不伴VH的PD患者涉及视觉处理通路(即顶叶、颞叶和枕叶,可能存在时间顺序)和认知通路(胆碱能桥脑脚核、海马)的区域都可以发生萎缩[12-15]。但回顾性研究数据收集存在一定出入,并且反映的是晚期PD进展,所以还需要更多纵向前瞻性研究进一步证实。

  • 1.3 大脑白质连接

  • 最近Zarkali等[16] 利用影像学技术,测量PD⁃VH和伴或不伴视觉受损的PD患者的纤维变化,结果提示伴有VH患者的胼胝体压部和左侧丘脑后辐射纤维束横截面积显著减少。丘脑后辐射包括丘脑与后扣带回间的连接,前者白质连接性减少可能导致默认模式网络(default⁃mode network,DMN)的异常连接。一项扩散张量成像(diffusion tensor imag⁃ ing,DTI)研究分析了VH与大脑功能网络连接的关系[17],结果表明PD⁃VH患者的枕叶外侧、岛叶及额中回节点之间,以及前额叶、初级视皮层节点之间连接性均下降,而眶额叶、颞叶以及构成DMN、背侧注意网络(dorsal attention network,DAN)区域的节点连接性增强。综合而言,脑白质连接性异常可能导致信息传递效率降低,从而产生VH。

  • 2 视觉通路和注意网络

  • “自下而上”受损和“自上而下”激活与VH发生发展密切相关。如果“自下而上”通路产生模糊视觉信息,“自上而下”通路将其与内源性信息匹配产生错误视觉图像,后者未被现实监控系统识别,最终产生VH。

  • 2.1 “自下而上”受损

  • “自下而上”通路指视网膜获得的视觉信息通过视神经、外侧膝状体(lateral geniculate nucleus, LGN)、初级视皮层以及颞叶、顶叶皮质进入高级中枢进行信息处理。研究者认为PD⁃VH与查尔斯·博内综合征(Charles Bonnet syndrome,CBS)机制类似,即“去传入理论”,视觉通路受损后,视觉传入神经阻滞改变了视皮质的投射区域,导致视觉皮层自发的影像释放,最终出现幻觉[18]。多项功能网络研究数据证实PD视觉系统受损、“自下而上”通路信号减弱。数项研究发现,视网膜内层(神经纤维层、神经细胞层、内丛状层)变薄与PD⁃VH有显著相关性[19]。 Lee等[20] 研究发现PD⁃VH患者的视神经和LGN显著萎缩,提出PD的视觉传入通路可能存在跨突触变性。研究者曾在PD的视网膜中发现类似LB的SNCA,视网膜各区域的DA能无长突细胞数量减少26%~58%[21]。1项VBM研究报告,背侧和腹侧视觉流相对应的区域萎缩[22]。在18F⁃脱氧葡萄糖⁃正电子发射断层扫描(18F ⁃FDG ⁃ positron emission tomogra⁃ phy,18F⁃FDG⁃PET)研究中[23-24],患有VH的非痴呆型PD患者额叶局部脑葡萄糖代谢率显著增加,颞顶枕叶的葡萄糖代谢率降低。最近一项脑电图提供相关依据[25],PD⁃VH患者的“自下而上”信息流下降。病理学和功能神经成像等研究均表明,PD⁃VH患者的视觉感知通路受损。

  • 2.2 “自上而下”激活

  • “自上而下”指受到场景信息调控的视觉加工通路,由额叶、颞叶、顶叶构成。PD⁃VH可能是因DAN、DMN、腹侧注意网络(ventral attention network, VAN)失衡,未能将感觉信息和先验知识整合而产生。Onofrj等[26] 支持一种假说,SNCA引起丘脑和桥脑脚核的功能障碍,丘脑皮质节律的改变驱动上述注意网络失衡,进而影响外部和内部的信息过滤,于是产生幻觉。在PD⁃VH患者静息状态下[27],脑磁图记录到θ波活动增加,这些节律被认为是丘脑皮质节律紊乱的核心特征。一项基于视觉任务的功能磁共振(functional magnetic resonance,fMRI)结果显示,任务错误频率与DMN和视觉网络连接加强、 DAN活动减少、DAN和DMN及VAN连接受损呈正相关[28]。一项静息态功能分析结果与之类似,Hepp等[29] 报告与不伴有VH的PD患者相比,PD⁃VH患者额颞枕叶、纹状体等多个区域功能连接性降低。 Watanabe等[30] 发现非痴呆性PD⁃VH患者较无VH患者,“自上而下”通路涉及的众多区域灰质体积减少,大脑皮质明显萎缩。FDG⁃PET研究也提供一些证据,视觉刺激时,额叶、皮层下代谢较高,颞顶叶和初级视觉皮层代谢较低[23-24]。这些数据表明视觉感知通路和注意监控网络的功能异常对的VH产生具有重要作用。

  • 3 PD⁃VH与神经递质改变有关

  • 神经递质失衡与PD⁃VH涉及多种重要通路,不同神经递质间存在相互作用。研究者提出DA⁃胆碱能平衡假说[11],在动物模型中发现,皮质纹状体神经元通过胆碱能中间神经元,介导皮质纹状体对纹状体DA释放的控制。同时,DA可通过驱动背内侧胆碱能中间神经元暂停放电来调节胆碱能中间神经元,DA的输入调节背侧纹状体保持一致的胆碱能活性水平[31]。除此之外,研究者提出了DA/5⁃羟色胺 (serotonin,5⁃HT)失衡假说[32],Wolters认为DA刺激眶额叶输出激活了中缝背侧神经元,中缝背侧神经元释放了5⁃HT,激活了5⁃HT2A受体,这些受体刺激γ⁃氨基丁酸(γ⁃ aminobutyric acid,GABA)能神经元,进而影响腹侧被盖区的DA能神经元,产生VH症状。

  • 3.1 DA

  • DA在PD⁃VH中一直备受关注。多项临床证据支持边缘叶DA通路亢进假说:减少DA药物剂量、使用DA受体阻滞剂类药物可以缓解VH症状[33],DA能致幻药可以产生包括VH的精神症状[32]。但许多研究者对这一假说持反对态度。最有力的证据是,许多PD患者在服用抗PD药物之前已经出现轻微幻觉[5]。一项PD临床队列研究报告,PDPsy的发生与左旋多巴的使用无明确关联[34]。最近一项大型实验比较接受丘脑底核⁃脑深部刺激(deep brain stimulation,DBS)、阿扑吗啡和空肠内注射左旋多巴患者的运动和非运动症状[35],结果显示,所有实验组的幻觉都显著改善,尤其是接受DBS或阿扑吗啡的患者,阿扑吗啡是强效DA受体激动剂,可能同时具有类似拮抗5⁃HT受体的作用。由上述结果推断, DA受体阻滞剂类药物可能对非DA受体产生影响,从而减轻VH症状。增加外源性DA会对VH症状产生影响,但并不是致病因素。

  • 3.2 乙酰胆碱

  • 胆碱能损害是PD、阿尔兹海默症、路易体痴呆 (dementia with Lewy bodies,DLB)的共同特征。Lenka等[36] 在一篇综述中指出分别伴有VH、快速眼动睡眠期行为障碍(rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder,RBD)、认知受损的3种PD患者都存在胆碱能功能障碍,具有类似的神经生物学过程,三者互相促进。抗胆碱能药物的使用会损害认知、增加VH频率,相反,抗胆碱酯酶抑制剂可以改善认知,降低VH频率[37]。胆碱能受体广泛分布在基底前脑和桥脑脚核[38],基底前脑复合体起源于Meynert基底核,投射到海马区、额叶和前额叶,与认知、注意力、 RBD相关;桥脑脚系统投射到丘脑和中脑的几个DA能核,与视觉信息处理相关。据多项神经影像学报告,PD⁃VH患者的上述胆碱能结构存在萎缩[12-15]。胆碱能低水平状态可以促进VH的发生发展。

  • 3.3 5⁃HT

  • 血清素能系统在精神障碍中扮演重要角色。 Stahl等[39] 认为,LB积聚促使前额叶、颞叶的5⁃HT2A受体上调,调节腹侧纹状体DA释放增强,过度刺激中脑边缘DA受体,引起PDPsy症状。除此之外, Soman等[40] 首次证明DA可通过特定残基对5⁃HT2A受体起着弱效应或部分激动剂的作用。数项影像学研究结果显示,PD⁃VH患者的腹侧视觉通路、背外侧前额叶、内侧眶前叶和岛叶5⁃HT2A受体结合增加[41]。“DA/5⁃HT失衡”假说为针对VH选择非典型抗精神病药物提供理论支撑,如氯氮平、喹硫平等具有拮抗5⁃HT2A受体作用药物,临床上常用于治疗PD⁃VH。FDA批准的5⁃HT2A反向激动剂匹莫范色林临床研究,统计结果显示可以减轻PDPsy,而不会加重运动症状[42]。由此可见,血清素能系统功能失衡在PDPsy病理过程中举足轻重。

  • 3.4 γ⁃GABA

  • GABA是最近研究较多的神经递质,认为精神分裂症中,VH可能由于海马GABA神经元的缺少,导致边缘系统DA活动脱抑制。 Schmitz等[43] 认为海马GABA与意识内容的意志控制密切相关,海马GABA能降低驱动内源信息入侵,可能是VH产生的一种机制。DLB的一项神经病理学研究显示,DLB患者的视皮层GABA能活性降低[44]。Firbank等[45] 在PD⁃VH患者中通过fMRI发现相似结果,PD⁃VH患者枕叶GABA/肌酸比值明显下降,可能因视觉刺激减少而代偿性下降。同时提出,由于5⁃HT受体可以调节GABA的释放,恩丹西酮、匹莫范色林等拮抗5⁃ HT受体药物可能部分作用于GABA能系统来治疗幻觉。GABA减少如何引起VH的具体机制还需要多模态研究来确定。

  • 4 总结与展望

  • 视幻觉是常见的PD精神障碍,增加PD患者的并发症及病死率,严重影响PD患者及其家属的生活质量。由于视幻觉症状评定依赖于患者主观描述,缺乏标准精神症状检测量表,所以PD患者幻觉症状评定存在偏倚。因此探索其发生机制具有重要临床意义,为早期诊断、有效干预提供更多思路。国外学者评估PD⁃VH选用的量表尚无统一标准,包括神经精神量表、阳性症状评估时间表、简明精神病评定量表等,特异性和敏感性有待考证。国内关于VH研究较少,尚无相关检测工具,急需研究者积极研制PD⁃VH特异评价量表。目前用于研究PD精神症状的动物模型极为缺乏,行为学判定难度较大,未来可采用多变量研究方式建立涵盖PD运动症状和非运动症状的动物模型,为进一步探讨PD精神症状的病理生理机制提供基础,指导临床工作。

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  • 参考文献

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