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据统计,全球每年约有1 370万人发生卒中,其中58万人死于卒中,卒中已经成为全世界人口死亡和残疾的主要原因之一[1]。在我国每年约250万新发脑卒中,急性缺血性脑卒中(acute isch⁃ emic stroke,AIS)占70%[2]。AIS是指由于脑的供血动脉发生狭窄或闭塞导致的脑组织坏死,及时开通闭塞血管是治疗合并大血管闭塞AIS的首要目标[3]。目前,静脉溶栓和血管内机械取栓治疗是血管闭塞再通治疗的两种主要手段[4]。2015年发表的5大研究的荟萃分析显示机械取栓治疗闭塞血管成功再通率可达到71%,而随着血管内治疗技术进步和医疗器械的进展,这一比例已超过80%[5-11]。近年来,颅内血栓的成分特征研究受到了越来越多的重视,这些研究发现血栓组成特征可能与卒中病因相关,与血栓影像学特征相关,与患者的临床预后相关,也可能与静脉溶栓和机械取栓的血管成功再通相关[12-13]。全面了解血栓的组织病理学相关研究将有助于闭塞血管开通策略的制定、临床预后的判断以及卒中二级预防的实施。
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1 AIS血栓病因学分类及特征描述
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血栓形成是指血液在血小板活化和凝血因子激活的情况下发生凝固的过程,形成的固体质块被称为血栓。在正常生理状态下,人体的凝血系统与纤维蛋白溶解系统能保持动态平衡,而在诱发凝血因素的作用下,便会形成血栓,其形成条件主要包括血管内皮细胞损伤、血流状态异常以及血液凝固性增加。根据TOAST(trial of ORG 10172in acute stroke treatment)分型可将AIS的病因分为以下5种:①大动脉粥样硬化型;②心源性栓塞型;③小动脉闭塞型;④其他明确病因包括凝血功能障碍、动脉夹层、血管炎以及感染性疾病等;⑤病因不明。通过已发表的文献总结了颅内血栓的研究及术语描述主要涉及以下方面。
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1.1 宏观形态学/物理特性
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颜色(红色、白色和混合血栓),大小(长度、直径和体积),取出完整性(单个或多个碎片),形态 (同质性或异质性)以及坚固性(柔软、硬度和弹性)。
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1.2 微观组成成分
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红细胞,白细胞,纤维蛋白,血小板,血管性血友病因子(Von Willebrand factor,VWF),中性粒细胞外杀菌网络(neutrophil extracellular trap,NET),T细胞,B细胞以及DNA等。
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1.3 影像学特征
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CT平扫高密度血管征(hyperdense artery sign, HAS),MRI磁敏感血管征(susceptibility vessel sign, SVS),血栓渗透性(clot perviousness/permeability),血栓至颈内动脉末端距离(distance from internal ca⁃ rotid artery ⁃terminus to thrombus)及血栓负荷评分 (clot burden score,CBS)等。
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2 血栓组织病理学分析
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2.1 血栓组织学成分与AIS病因
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可通过苏木精⁃伊红染色(hematoxylin and eo⁃ sin,HE)、弹性范吉森染色(Verhoeff ⁃Van Gieson, VVG)、马休猩红蓝染色(Martius scarlet blue,MSB) 以及免疫组化(immunohistochemistry)等在内的一系列组织学技术来鉴别血栓的内部组成成分以及特定的细胞和分子[14]。
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血栓成分同AIS病因之间关联的研究发现心源性栓子的纤维蛋白或血小板以及白细胞含量更高,红细胞成分比例更低[15-16]。有研究指出隐源性卒中的血栓与心源性卒中的血栓在组成上高度相似,因此推测其血栓极有可能也来自于心脏[15,17]。但是,也有少部分研究发现大动脉粥样硬化型卒中血栓的纤维蛋白以及血小板组分更多,而红细胞成分比例则低于心源性栓子[18-20]。因此,血栓成分与血栓来源之间的相关性研究仍有一定的争议。
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2.2 血栓组织学成分与AIS临床转归
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闭塞血管成功再通是血管内治疗的主要目标,而颅内血栓的组织成分可能与AIS患者的血管成功再通以及临床转归相关,但是,这一方面的研究结论并不完全一致。一项系统性综述分析了血栓的影像学以及组织学特征同AIS病因及临床结局之间的相关性,但最终结果显示血栓的组织学特征与AIS病因及术后即刻造影表现之间并无统计学关联[21]。然而,另外的研究显示富含红细胞的栓子与闭塞血管的良好再通显著相关[22],富含血小板的血栓相应的血管良好再通率较低[23]。此外,还有研究提出白细胞介导的炎性过程和AIS的发病机制有关,包括中性粒细胞、巨噬细胞、树突状细胞以及淋巴细胞在内的白细胞在发病早期即可浸润缺血脑组织。Quan等[24] 提出入院时患者较高的外周血白细胞计数或血栓内白细胞比例与患者较差的血管再通率及不良预后有关。
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另外,研究表明富含红细胞的小栓子在取栓前发生迁移的概率较高,这可能是因为小的血栓与血管壁之间的贴合力较差,且富含红细胞的栓子其表面摩擦力更小[25-26]。血栓迁移会降低取栓成功率并影响患者的临床预后,因此对血栓迁移的早期识别及预防非常重要。富含红细胞的栓子还具有易碎的特性,在机械取栓过程中易发生栓子碎裂导致二次栓塞,这在增加了取栓次数及难度的同时还会降低血管成功再通率[27-28],而另一项类似的研究却表明高红细胞比例虽然与二次栓塞相关,但无统计学意义[29]。因此,AIS颅内血栓成分的差异,可能是接受机械取栓治疗AIS患者的疗效以及临床转归的一项影响因素。
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2.3 血栓的物理学特性
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血栓的物理学特征如摩擦力和软硬度等,会影响其与取栓支架或抽吸导管等装置之间的相互作用,进而影响取出效率。另外,血栓的易碎性特点会导致远端继发性栓塞等不良事件的发生。 Gunning等[30] 研究发现红细胞成分较少的血栓摩擦力更大,可能会增加血栓取出的难度。颅内血栓在血管内除受到高速血流的冲击之外,还会受到多次拉栓的挤压影响。Gersh和Chueh等[31-32] 通过对人体内取出的血栓组织以及体外制备的血栓类似物进行分析,验证了富含红细胞的血栓具有更大的弹性。不过受到体外研究的限制,血栓取出体外后可能会发生一系列特性变化,因此血栓的物理学特性研究仍具有一定挑战性。
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3 血栓影像学分析
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3.1 血栓影像学特征与AIS病因及临床转归
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最新一项研究表明,相比于其他卒中亚型,非心源性栓塞CT平扫上更易出现大脑中动脉高密度征,同时伴随血栓负荷更低、血栓至颈内动脉末端距离更短、血栓长度更长等影像特征[33]。血栓负荷评分是一种基于CT血管成像(CT angiography, CTA)、T2加权以及磁敏感加权(susceptibility weight⁃ ed imaging,SWI)成像对血栓进行的半定量评分。研究指出接受取栓治疗的患者血栓负荷评分与术后出血转化具有一定的正相关性[34],而低血栓负荷评分则与良好的预后相关。另外,Dutra等[35] 提出血栓位置越远,血栓负荷评分越高,血栓长度越短,血栓渗透性越高,则闭塞开通时间越短,功能结局越好。除此之外,还有研究通过影像组学的方法深度挖掘血栓影像特征,建立特异的影像组学标志物来预测接受静脉溶栓或者机械取栓治疗患者的血管再通概率[36-37]。因此,通过分析血栓影像学特征,可对AIS病因及其临床转归作出一定的预测。
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3.2 血栓影像学特征与组织学成分
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影像学检查可以在血管内治疗前完成,血栓组成成分与某些特异性的影像学征象之间的关联可用来预测血栓的成分。CT平扫出现的大脑中动脉高密度征以及磁共振成像中的磁敏感征象多提示对应部位的大血管闭塞。目前,已有一系列研究表明CT上出现的高密度征与血栓内红细胞含量高有关[14,21],在磁敏感加权成像中的磁敏感血管征也与血栓内红细胞成分高度相关[38-39]。最新的一项体外研究利用SWI、T2梯度回波和FLAIR序列对血栓红细胞成分进行定量测定,显示出良好的测量结果[40]。上述影像学特征均与血栓红细胞成分多少有关,较多的红细胞组分往往提示更好的溶栓效果、更短的手术时间以及更高的成功再通率,同时也伴随着更高的远端栓塞发生率。血栓渗透性是最近研究提出的另外一项血栓影像学特征,是描述造影剂渗透进入血栓组织程度的参数,可由平扫CT与CTA之间的血栓CT值差异来量化,渗透越高,红细胞比例越低,而纤维蛋白或血小板成分越多[41]。不过,另外两项研究却提示高血栓渗透性与高红细胞组分有关,血栓渗透性高可获得较好的预后及更高的成功再通率[42-43]。因此,血栓渗透性与组织成分之间的关系还有待于更多的研究去验证。
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4 血栓的体外研究
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除了对血栓进行组织病理学分析以及影像学分析之外,还有研究通过制备血栓类似物以及血管模型对AIS血栓进行体外分析。尽管人工制备的血栓类似物同体内血栓存在差异,但血栓类似物可用来评估血栓与各种取栓器械之间的相互作用,并对不同的器械或技术进行比较。Sanchez等[44] 通过建立体外三维血管模型模拟大脑中动脉M1段闭塞,来评估一种新型高级取栓装置的安全性及有效性。Johnson等[45] 构建了一套钙化栓子所致前循环大血管闭塞的体外模型来比较不同的开通策略,为临床上相对罕见且预后较差的钙化血栓相关闭塞的开通提供了依据。
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5 小结与展望
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血管内机械取栓治疗技术发展迅速,已经成为合并大血管闭塞急性缺血性脑卒中的标准治疗方式。本文综述了近年来急性缺血性脑卒中颅内血栓的组织病理学、影像学以及体外研究的进展,为更进一步认识AIS的病因、发病机制,优化治疗方案,评价患者预后提供了系统参考。
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摘要
急性缺血性脑卒中(acute ischemic stroke,AIS)具有高发病率、高致残率及高病死率的特点。近年来,血管内机械取栓治疗已经成为合并大血管闭塞AIS的标准治疗方法。对取出的颅内血栓进行组织病理学研究,既能深入认识血栓的组成, 明确AIS的病因,还能根据不同患者的血栓特性选择优化的治疗手段,以及根据血栓成分的差异指导脑卒中的二级预防。因此,文章将对近年来AIS颅内血栓的相关研究作一综述。
Abstract
Acute ischemic stroke(AIS)is characterized by high morbidity, disability and mortality. In recent years, mechanical thrombectomy has become the standard treatment for AIS with large vessel occlusion, which has also enabled us to collect and analyze the thrombus retrieved from cerebral arteries. Through understandings of the type, characteristics and composition of thrombus can not only extend our recognition of the composition of the thrombus, but also help to assist in accurate diagnosis, treatment decision making and secondary prevention of stroke. This paper aims to review AIS thrombus⁃relevant literature and propose further research directions.
Keywords
ishemic stroke ; mechanical thrombectomy ; thrombus ; pathology