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通讯作者:

郑旭琴,E-mail:zhengxuqin@njmu.edu.cn

中图分类号:R587.1

文献标识码:A

文章编号:1007-4368(2022)05-740-06

DOI:10.7655/NYDXBNS20220523

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目录contents

    摘要

    甲状腺结节是指各种原因导致甲状腺内出现的一个或多个组织结构异常的团块。近年来甲状腺结节患病率不断增加,糖代谢异常可能是其重要原因之一,主要涉及胰岛素/胰岛素样生长因子1、瘦素、炎症、遗传免疫等机制。二甲双胍作内应用最广泛的抗糖尿病药物,可以通过不同信号通路发挥抑制甲状腺结节的作用。文章就此方面研究进展进行综述。

    Abstract

    The prevalence of thyroid nodules has been increasing in recent years,and some studies have shown that glucose metabolic disorder may be one of the important reasons,mainly involving insulin/insulin⁃like growth factor 1,leptin,inflammation,genetic immunity and other mechanisms. Metformin can inhibit thyroid nodules through different signaling pathways. This article introduces the linkage between thyroid nodules and glucose metabolism disorders,and analyzes the mechanism of metformin inhibiting thyroid nodules.

  • 1 甲状腺结节的流行病学

  • 甲状腺结节是一种常见的内分泌疾病,超声诊断率高达19%~67%,其中8%~16%诊断为甲状腺癌[1]。最近研究表明,良、恶性甲状腺结节的患病率均在增加[2],这可能与当前饮食和生活方式的改变,及代谢紊乱的流行有一定的相关性[3]。研究发现较高的体重指数(body mass index,BMI)与结节的生长有关[4],这与最近有关甲状腺结节与肥胖和胰岛素抵抗相关的报道一致[5]。研究发现代谢综合征(met⁃ abolic syndrome,MetS)与甲状腺结节及甲状腺体积增大的风险正相关[6],在调整年龄、性别等因素后这一关系仍成立[7]。国外一项随机纳入1 200多例人群的横断面调查显示,糖尿病和BMI与甲状腺结节存在独立相关,且经年龄和性别校正后,结节数量也随着BMI的增加而增加[8]。胰岛素抵抗是MetS发病的中心环节,也是糖代谢异常者病程进展的重要机制。尽管受到混杂因素影响,目前认为,胰岛素抵抗及糖代谢异常等会显著影响甲状腺结节的发生[9]

  • 2 甲状腺结节与糖代谢的关联

  • 大量研究发现,甲状腺是糖代谢紊乱的靶组织之一。糖代谢异常包括空腹血糖调节受损、糖耐量异常和糖尿病。中国非碘缺乏区的40岁以上社区人群甲状腺结节的流行病学调查显示,糖尿病前期 (空腹血糖受损和葡萄糖耐量异常)和糖尿病可能是甲状腺结节的独立危险因素[9]。国外研究表明,在碘充足地区,空腹血糖受损的患者甲状腺结节的发生率增加[10],同时国内调查发现甲状腺结节患者的空腹血糖和餐后2h血糖偏高[11]。同时,在轻至中度缺碘地区,糖代谢受损同样是甲状腺体积和结节患病率显著增加的危险因素[12]。因此糖代谢紊乱可促进甲状腺结节的发生,而与碘营养状况无关。

  • 胰岛素抵抗可能是糖代谢异常致甲状腺结节发病率增加的重要原因。既往大部分文献报道均为糖尿病前期和2型糖尿病(type2diabetes melli⁃ tus,T2DM)患者的甲状腺结节患病率明显高于糖代谢正常者[9],1型糖尿病(type1diabetes mellitus, T1DM)的甲状腺疾病谱表现为甲状腺肿和甲状腺结节风险降低[13]。胰岛素抵抗是T2DM发病机制中的关键因素,可代偿性引起血清中胰岛素水平的升高,与甲状腺结节的形成密切相关[12]。多项横断面研究发现甲状腺结节患者中存在胰岛素抵抗和高胰岛素血症,与甲状腺正常者相比具有更高的胰岛素抵抗指数,且胰岛素抵抗与甲状腺结节大小呈显著正相关。另一方面,越来越多的证据表明高胰岛素血症患者也常出现甲状腺相关的结构性变化,如体积增加和结节性表现[14]

  • 3 糖代谢异常影响甲状腺结节的机制

  • 3.1 胰岛素/胰岛素样生长因子1(insulin⁃like growth factor 1,IGF⁃1)学说

  • 胰岛素/IGF系统由3个配体(胰岛素、IGF⁃1和IGF⁃2)、4个酪氨酸激酶受体[胰岛素受体(insulin receptor,IR)、IGF⁃1受体(IGF⁃1receptor,IGF⁃1R)、6⁃ 磷酸甘露糖/IGF⁃2受体(mannose⁃6phosphate/IGF⁃2receptor,M6P/IGF⁃2R)、胰岛素/IGF⁃1杂合受体]和6个IGF结合蛋白(IGF ⁃ binding proteins,IGFBP: IGFBP⁃1~IGFBP⁃6)组成,在调节甲状腺的正常发育和生长方面发挥重要作用,并参与甲状腺细胞增生[14]。IGF⁃1和胰岛素具有很大的同源性,当超过生理剂量作用时,胰岛素和IGF⁃1分别与IGF⁃1R和IR发生交叉反应。甲状腺细胞对胰岛素敏感,功能性IR和IGF⁃1R在甲状腺细胞中均有表达,胰岛素抵抗导致高胰岛素血症,胰岛素可直接作用于IR和IGF⁃1R,诱导丝裂原活化蛋白激酶(mitogen⁃acti⁃ vated protein kinase,MAPK)信号通路的过度激活,并产生促有丝分裂作用[15]。在胰岛素抵抗中,高胰岛素血症还可抑制肝脏IGFBP⁃1和IGFBP⁃2的产生,从而提高IGF的游离水平和生物利用度,通过IGF⁃1R或IR刺激胰岛素样作用,促进葡萄糖转运和蛋白质合成,并诱导细胞增殖[15]。早期细胞培养发现,促甲状腺激素(thyroid⁃stimulating hormone,TSH) 和IGF⁃1在调节甲状腺生长中具有协同作用,小鼠甲状腺细胞的IGF⁃1R缺失会损害甲状腺激素的分泌并完全抑制TSH刺激的甲状腺肿,IGF⁃1还可能通过自分泌机制调节人甲状腺功能[16]。基于人群的研究同样发现血清IGF⁃1水平较高与甲状腺肿和甲状腺结节发生有关,IGF⁃1和IGF⁃1R在滤泡性腺瘤、结节性甲状腺肿和甲状腺乳头状癌中的表达均显著高于对照组[17]。故Insulin/IGF⁃1信号通路可能是胰岛素抵抗影响甲状腺结节发生的重要途径。

  • 3.2 瘦素学说

  • 瘦素是一种典型的脂肪因子,其循环水平与脂肪量呈正比,可随能量摄入的剧烈变化而改变,在食欲控制、新陈代谢、能量平衡、脂肪动员等方面均发挥重要作用[18-19]。文献资料表明,慢性高胰岛素血症会增加人和啮齿动物的血清瘦素水平,胰岛素抵抗程度与血清瘦素浓度呈正相关[18]。动物实验发现胰岛素通过磷酸肌醇⁃3激酶(phosphatidylinosi⁃ tol ⁃3kinase,PI3K)/磷酸二酯酶3B(phosphodiester⁃ ase type3B,PDE3B)依赖性机制调节原代脂肪细胞中瘦素的分泌,并可通过转录因子固醇调节元件结合蛋白1(sterol regulatory element⁃binding protein 1, SREBP ⁃1)、CCAAT增强子结合蛋白α(CCAAT/en⁃ hancer binding protein α,C/EBPα)和特异性蛋白1 (specificity protein 1,SP1)的激活促进瘦素mRNA的合成。此外,体内外研究均表明胰岛素可刺激人腹部皮下和乳腺脂肪组织及大鼠附睾等脂肪组织释放瘦素[18]。胰岛素参与瘦素的合成与分泌,而瘦素是下丘脑中促甲状腺激素释放激素(thyrotropin⁃re⁃ leasing hormone,TRH)和TSH分泌的已知调节剂,可通过直接作用于室旁核(paraventricular nucleus, PVN)和间接作用于弓状核两种途径激活TRH神经元[20]。PVN中的TRH神经元同时表达瘦素受体和黑皮质素4型受体(melanocortin⁃4receptor,MC4R),这两种信号转导系统都可能在体内调节TRH基因的表达。在直接途径中,瘦素被证明与TRH神经元表达的长型自身受体结合,通过诱导信号转导和转录激活因子3(signal transducer and activator of tran⁃ scription 3,STAT3)磷酸化并上调PVN中proTRH基因的表达来促进TRH合成,进而影响TSH水平。在间接途径中,瘦素激活阿片⁃促黑素细胞皮质素原神经元,后者在PVN产生MC4R的配体α⁃促黑色素细胞刺激素(α ⁃ melanocyte stimulating hormone,α ⁃ MSH),通过cAMP反应元件结合蛋白(cAMP re⁃ sponse element binding protein,CREB)的磷酸化和CREB/DNA结合激活TRH启动子,进而刺激TRH的合成与释放[20]。TSH是腺垂体分泌的促进甲状腺生长和机能的激素,可诱导甲状腺细胞的生长和增殖,长时间的TSH刺激和甲状腺细胞增殖可导致体细胞突变和结节形成[21]。此外,T2DM患者血清瘦素浓度增加也可能是因为合并肥胖的发生率高,随着脂肪量增加,瘦素分泌增多[19],从而影响血清TSH的水平,促进甲状腺结节的发生。

  • 3.3 慢性炎症学说

  • 胰岛素抵抗和高胰岛素血症导致甲状腺结节的发生可能与慢性炎症有关[22]。越来越多的证据表明慢性炎症反应在胰岛素抵抗的发病机制中起着重要作用[23],而全身性炎症可能也与甲状腺结节的形成和发展有关[22]。一项共纳入133 698例人群的横断面研究发现,单核细胞与高密度脂蛋白胆固醇的比值(monocyte⁃to⁃high⁃density lipoprotein cho⁃ lesterol ratio,MHR)与甲状腺节的发生及大小密切相关[22]。国内亦有研究发现甲状腺结节患者体内存在慢性低度炎症反应,其血糖及血清白细胞介素⁃ 6(interleukin⁃6,IL⁃6)、肿瘤坏死因子⁃α(tumor necro⁃ sis factor⁃alpha,TNF⁃α)等炎症因子水平偏高,高炎症因子水平参与甲状腺结节的发生,而胰岛素抵抗者炎症因子水平也较高[24]

  • 3.4 遗传免疫学说

  • 胰岛素和甲状腺激素都受到自身免疫病理的影响,与代谢综合征相关,影响细胞代谢。T2DM和甲状腺疾病之间的内在联系被认为是生化、遗传和激素异常等相互作用的结果[25]。研究发现,肝葡萄糖转运蛋白2(glucose transporter type2,GLUT2)基因在甲状腺功能亢进症中的表达增加,细胞内的三碘甲状腺原氨酸(triiodothyronine,T3)也可能在胰岛素敏感性中起作用。T3可调节骨骼肌中葡萄糖转运蛋白4(glucose transporter type4,GLUT4)基因的表达,并增加基础和胰岛素介导的葡萄糖转运[25]。此外,糖尿病与甲状腺疾病存在共同的易感基因变体,这些变体带来共同的自身免疫易感性,并可能成为两种疾病并存的原因之一[26]。国内有学者认为甲状腺结节与T2DM的基因缺陷发生于同一染色体上,T2DM患者甲状腺结节发生率高可能与糖尿病患者出现错误基因编码的同时启动甲状腺结节的DNA合成有关[27]

  • 3.5 其他

  • 胰岛素抵抗是甲状腺结节生长和发展的重要因素,可能与结节血管化的分布、结构和密度有关[28]。南京的一项横断面研究,共纳入2 532例甲状腺结节患者,发现胰岛素抵抗和高血糖与甲状腺结节的血流模式、血管阻力指数(resistive index,RI)和血管指数(vascular index,VI)呈正相关,特别是在大结节中更为显著[28]。也有实验数据显示胰岛素抵抗对前列腺癌、乳腺癌等肿瘤血管生成有促进作用,此作用在甲状腺肿瘤中也被证实,而血管生成是内分泌相关肿瘤进展的一个重要因素,并被证明可促进甲状腺肿瘤的生长[28]。此外,糖代谢异常患者长期高血糖导致晚期糖基化终末产物(advanced glyca⁃ tion end product,AGE)的体内蓄积,可能是DM合并甲状腺结节高发的另一原因。研究发现[29],AGE或高血糖均可通过上调AGE受体并使人甲状腺细胞中的沉默信息调节因子1(silent information regulator 1, SIRT1)/核因子E2相关因子2(nuclear factor ery⁃ throid 2⁃related factor 2,Nrf2)途径失活而导致细胞损伤和甲状腺功能减退,而甲状腺功能减退对甲状腺结节具有促进作用。故糖代谢异常可能通过多个途径影响甲状腺结节的发生发展。

  • 4 二甲双胍与甲状腺结节

  • 二甲双胍作为应用最广泛的抗糖尿病药物,被认为是T2DM治疗的基石。初步临床数据提示,接受二甲双胍治疗的患者甲状腺体积较小,甲状腺肿、甲状腺结节和癌症的风险较低。一项共纳入5项研究的系统评价和荟萃分析显示,二甲双胍可降低胰岛素抵抗患者的甲状腺结节大小[12]。研究发现TSH水平与胰岛素抵抗呈正相关[30],在糖尿病前期人群中,二甲双胍治疗可降低血清TSH> 2.5 μU/mL患者的TSH水平,并减少甲状腺结节的大小,但对正常甲状腺功能患者的TSH水平没有影响[31]。此外,二甲双胍对于没有胰岛素抵抗患者及恶性结节亦有抑制作用[31-32],其与糖尿病患者中甲状腺癌的较高缓解率和生存率及甲状腺乳头状癌合并颈淋巴结转移的良好预后相关[32]

  • 目前二甲双胍抑制甲状腺结节的机制主要集中在以下方面(图1):①降低TSH水平:二甲双胍对甲状腺功能的调节可能与腺苷酸活化蛋白激酶 (AMP⁃activated protein kinase,AMPK)系统有关,其可通过激活AMPK抑制甲状腺细胞中钠碘同向转运体的表达和摄碘能力[33],但在下丘脑抑制AMPK活性,增强甲状腺激素对TSH分泌的抑制作用[31]。 Cannarella等[34] 认为二甲双胍可改善胰岛素受体底物1(insulin receptor substrate1,IRS1)的异常磷酸化,从而降低TSHR信号通路干扰和TSH水平。②改善胰岛素抵抗:MAPK通路是胰岛素/IGF信号转导的重要组成部分,细胞外调节蛋白激酶(extracellular signal⁃ regulated kinase,ERK)是这一通路的关键酶,其中二甲双胍显著降低ERK的磷酸化和促进AMPK磷酸化并破坏胰岛素的增殖作用[35]。AMPK是糖脂代谢的关键酶,二甲双胍诱导AMPK的活化,从而抑制肝糖异生和骨骼肌对葡萄糖的摄取[36]。故二甲双胍可能通过靶向胰岛素/IGF信号转导和AMPK途径,改善胰岛素抵抗,从而发挥甲状腺结节的抑制作用。③抑制哺乳动物雷帕霉素靶蛋白(mammalian target of ra⁃ pamycin,mTOR)通路:研究发现二甲双胍可通过多个水平抑制mTOR途径发挥抗甲状腺结节和甲状腺癌效应,包括降低IGF⁃1/胰岛素受体的信号转导和Rag GTPase活性及直接靶向激活AMPK/mTOR通路抑制甲状腺细胞生长[37]。④其他:最近研究证明二甲双胍可能通过其他机制抑制甲状腺细胞生长,如抑制甲状腺正常细胞和癌细胞中TNF⁃α诱导的CXCL8分泌,间接反映二甲双胍的抗癌特性[31]

  • 图1 二甲双胍抑制甲状腺结节的主要机制

  • Fig.1 The main mechanism of metformin inhibiting thyroid nodules

  • 5 思考与展望

  • 目前甲状腺结节的发生率较过去明显增加,临床研究表明代谢异常在其中发挥重要作用,二者的关系密切且复杂,具体病理机制尚未完全清楚,仍需进一步的临床与基础研究探讨其内在联系及可能机制。纠正糖代谢紊乱,如二甲双胍单独或联合甲状腺激素替代治疗可减少甲状腺的体积及良、恶性结节大小,并有益于甲状腺癌的预后。综上,糖代谢异常患者进行甲状腺结节筛查及2型糖尿病伴甲状腺结节患者进行降血糖治疗,对甲状腺结节的诊断和治疗均十分必要。

  • 参考文献

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    • [2] POWERS A E,MARCADIS A R,LEE M,et al.Changes in trends in thyroid cancer incidence in the united states,1992 to 2016[J].JAMA,2019,322(24):2440-2441

    • [3] YILDIRIM SIMSIR I,CETINKALP S,KABALAK T.Re⁃ view of factors contributing to nodular goiter and thyroid carcinoma[J].Med Princ Pract,2020,29(1):1-5

    • [4] DURANTE C,COSTANTE G,LUCISANO G,et al.The natural history of benign thyroid nodules[J].JAMA,2015,313(9):926-935

    • [5] HU L,LI T,YIN X L,et al.An analysis of the correlation between thyroid nodules and metabolic syndrome[J].En⁃ docr Connect,2020,9(9):933-938

    • [6] GUO W,TAN L,CHEN W,et al.Relationship between metabolic syndrome and thyroid nodules and thyroid vol⁃ ume in an adult population[J].Endocrine,2019,65(2):357-364

    • [7] LIANG Q,YU S,CHEN S,et al.Association of changes in metabolic syndrome status with the incidence of thy⁃ roid nodules:a prospective study in Chinese adults[J].Front Endocrinol(Lausanne),2020,11:582

    • [8] BUSCEMI S,MASSENTI F M,VASTO S,et al.Associa⁃ tion of obesity and diabetes with thyroid nodules[J].En⁃ docrine,2018,60(2):339-347

    • [9] ZHANG H M,FENG Q W,NIU Y X,et al.Thyroid nod⁃ ules in type 2 diabetes mellitus[J].Curr Med Sci,2019,39(4):576-581

    • [10] MAYERS R A,SORIA MONTOYA A,PISCOYA RIVE⁃ RA A,et al.Association between metabolic syndrome and euthyroid nodular goiter:a case⁃control study[J].Colomb Med(Cali),2019,50(4):239-251

    • [11] LIU J,WANG C,TANG X,et al.Correlation analysis of metabolic syndrome and its components with thyroid nod⁃ ules[J].Diabetes Metab Syndr Obes,2019,12:1617-1623

    • [12] HE X,WU D,HU C,et al.Role of Metformin in the treat⁃ ment of patients with thyroid nodules and insulin resis⁃ tance:a systematic review and meta⁃analysis[J].Thyroid,2019,29(3):359-367

    • [13] VÖLZKE H,KROHN U,WALLASCHOFSKI H,et al.The spectrum of thyroid disorders in adult type 1 diabetes mellitus[J].Diabetes Metab Res Rev,2007,23(3):227-233

    • [14] TSATSOULIS A.The role of insulin resistance/hyperinsu⁃ linism on the rising trend of thyroid and adrenal nodular disease in the current environment[J].J Clin Med,2018,7(3):37

    • [15] KUSHCHAYEVA Y S,KUSHCHAYEV S V,STARTZ⁃ ELL M,et al.Thyroid abnormalities in patients with ex⁃ treme insulin resistance syndromes[J].J Clin Endocrinol Metab,2019,104(6):2216-2228

    • [16] JANSSEN J A M J L,SMITH T J.Lessons learned from targeting IGF⁃I receptor in thyroid⁃associated ophthalmop⁃ athy[J].Cells,2021,10(2):383

    • [17] KARAGIANNIS A,KASSI E,CHATZIGEORGIOU A,et al.IGF bioregulation system in benign and malignant thy⁃ roid nodular disease:a systematic review[J].In Vivo,2020,34(6):3069-3091

    • [18] CIGNARELLI A,GENCHI V A,PERRINI S,et al.Insu⁃ lin and insulin receptors in adipose tissue development [J].Int J Mol Sci,2019,20(3):759

    • [19] GENCHI V A,D'ORIA R,PALMA G,et al.Impaired leptin signalling in obesity:is leptin a new thermolipo⁃ kine?[J].Int J Mol Sci,2021,22(12):6445

    • [20] SHI Z,PELLETIER N E,WONG J,et al.Leptin increas⁃ es sympathetic nerve activity via induction of its own re⁃ ceptor in the paraventricular nucleus[J].Elife,2020,9:e55357

    • [21] XIANG Y,XU Y,BHANDARI A,et al.Serum TSH levels are associated with postoperative recurrence and lymph node metastasis of papillary thyroid carcinoma[J].Am J Transl Res,2021,13(6):6108-6116

    • [22] LIU X Z,WANG J M,JI Y X,et al.Monocyte⁃to⁃high⁃den⁃ sity lipoprotein cholesterol ratio is associated with the presence and size of thyroid nodule irrespective of the gender[J].Lipids Health Dis,2020,19(1):36

    • [23] YANG B,MADDISON L A,ZABORSKA K E,et al.RIPK3 ⁃ mediated inflammation is a conserved β cell re⁃ sponse to ER stress[J].Sci Adv,2020,6(51):eabd7272

    • [24] 孙金枝,刘明明,侯宁宁,等.炎症因子与甲状腺结节的相关性研究[J].中国继续医学教育,2016,8(31):83-84

    • [25] KALRA S,AGGARWAL S,KHANDELWAL D.Thyroid dysfunction and type 2 diabetes mellitus:screening strate⁃ gies and implications for management[J].Diabetes Ther,2019,10(6):2035-2044

    • [26] BIONDI B,KAHALY G J,ROBERTSON R P.Thyroid dysfunction and diabetes mellitus:two closely associated disorders[J].Endocr Rev,2019,40(3):789-824

    • [27] 彭可.2 型糖尿病患者甲状腺结节发病的相关因素分析[J].中国医药导刊,2016,18(2):147-148,153

    • [28] WANG K,YANG Y,WU Y,et al.The association be⁃ tween insulin resistance and vascularization of thyroid nodules[J].J Clin Endocrinol Metab,2015,100(1):184-192

    • [29] WANG Z,GUO W,YI F,et al.The regulatory effect of sirt1 on extracellular microenvironment remodeling[J].Int J Biol Sci,2021,17(1):89-96

    • [30] 刘丽娟,甄东户,汤旭磊,等.中老年人促甲状腺素水平与新发非酒精性脂肪性肝病的相关性研究[J].南京医科大学学报(自然科学版),2021,41(3):369-375

    • [31] DOS SANTOS P B,GERTRUDES L N,CONCEIçãO F L,et al.effects of metformin on tsh levels and benign nodu⁃ lar goiter volume in patients without insulin resistance or iodine insufficiency[J].Front Endocrinol(Lausanne),2019,10:465

    • [32] THAKUR S,DALEY B,KLUBO⁃GWIEZDZINSKA J.The role of an anti⁃diabetic drug metformin in the treatment of endocrine tumors[J].J Mol Endocrinol,2019,63(2):R17-R35

    • [33] WANG H,MA Z,CHENG X,et al.Physiological and pathophysiological roles of ion transporter ⁃ mediated me⁃ tabolism in the thyroid gland and in thyroid cancer[J].Onco Targets Ther,2020,13:12427-12441

    • [34] CANNARELLA R,CONDORELLI R A,BARBAGALLO F,et al.TSH lowering effects of metformin:a possible mechanism of action[J].J Endocrinol Invest,2021,44(7):1547-1550

    • [35] CHEN G,XU S,RENKO K,et al.Metformin inhibits growth of thyroid carcinoma cells,suppresses self⁃renew⁃ al of derived cancer stem cells,and potentiates the effect of chemotherapeutic agents[J].J Clin Endocrinol Metab,2012,97(4):E510-E520

    • [36] HE L.Metformin and systemic metabolism[J].Trends Pharmacol Sci,2020,41(11):868-881

    • [37] AMIN S,LUX A,O'CALLAGHAN F.The journey of met⁃ formin from glycaemic control to mTOR inhibition and the suppression of tumour growth[J].Br J Clin Pharma⁃ col,2019,85(1):37⁃46

  • 参考文献

    • [1] BURMAN K D,WARTOFSKY L.Thyroid nodules[J].N Engl J Med,2016,374(13):1294-1295

    • [2] POWERS A E,MARCADIS A R,LEE M,et al.Changes in trends in thyroid cancer incidence in the united states,1992 to 2016[J].JAMA,2019,322(24):2440-2441

    • [3] YILDIRIM SIMSIR I,CETINKALP S,KABALAK T.Re⁃ view of factors contributing to nodular goiter and thyroid carcinoma[J].Med Princ Pract,2020,29(1):1-5

    • [4] DURANTE C,COSTANTE G,LUCISANO G,et al.The natural history of benign thyroid nodules[J].JAMA,2015,313(9):926-935

    • [5] HU L,LI T,YIN X L,et al.An analysis of the correlation between thyroid nodules and metabolic syndrome[J].En⁃ docr Connect,2020,9(9):933-938

    • [6] GUO W,TAN L,CHEN W,et al.Relationship between metabolic syndrome and thyroid nodules and thyroid vol⁃ ume in an adult population[J].Endocrine,2019,65(2):357-364

    • [7] LIANG Q,YU S,CHEN S,et al.Association of changes in metabolic syndrome status with the incidence of thy⁃ roid nodules:a prospective study in Chinese adults[J].Front Endocrinol(Lausanne),2020,11:582

    • [8] BUSCEMI S,MASSENTI F M,VASTO S,et al.Associa⁃ tion of obesity and diabetes with thyroid nodules[J].En⁃ docrine,2018,60(2):339-347

    • [9] ZHANG H M,FENG Q W,NIU Y X,et al.Thyroid nod⁃ ules in type 2 diabetes mellitus[J].Curr Med Sci,2019,39(4):576-581

    • [10] MAYERS R A,SORIA MONTOYA A,PISCOYA RIVE⁃ RA A,et al.Association between metabolic syndrome and euthyroid nodular goiter:a case⁃control study[J].Colomb Med(Cali),2019,50(4):239-251

    • [11] LIU J,WANG C,TANG X,et al.Correlation analysis of metabolic syndrome and its components with thyroid nod⁃ ules[J].Diabetes Metab Syndr Obes,2019,12:1617-1623

    • [12] HE X,WU D,HU C,et al.Role of Metformin in the treat⁃ ment of patients with thyroid nodules and insulin resis⁃ tance:a systematic review and meta⁃analysis[J].Thyroid,2019,29(3):359-367

    • [13] VÖLZKE H,KROHN U,WALLASCHOFSKI H,et al.The spectrum of thyroid disorders in adult type 1 diabetes mellitus[J].Diabetes Metab Res Rev,2007,23(3):227-233

    • [14] TSATSOULIS A.The role of insulin resistance/hyperinsu⁃ linism on the rising trend of thyroid and adrenal nodular disease in the current environment[J].J Clin Med,2018,7(3):37

    • [15] KUSHCHAYEVA Y S,KUSHCHAYEV S V,STARTZ⁃ ELL M,et al.Thyroid abnormalities in patients with ex⁃ treme insulin resistance syndromes[J].J Clin Endocrinol Metab,2019,104(6):2216-2228

    • [16] JANSSEN J A M J L,SMITH T J.Lessons learned from targeting IGF⁃I receptor in thyroid⁃associated ophthalmop⁃ athy[J].Cells,2021,10(2):383

    • [17] KARAGIANNIS A,KASSI E,CHATZIGEORGIOU A,et al.IGF bioregulation system in benign and malignant thy⁃ roid nodular disease:a systematic review[J].In Vivo,2020,34(6):3069-3091

    • [18] CIGNARELLI A,GENCHI V A,PERRINI S,et al.Insu⁃ lin and insulin receptors in adipose tissue development [J].Int J Mol Sci,2019,20(3):759

    • [19] GENCHI V A,D'ORIA R,PALMA G,et al.Impaired leptin signalling in obesity:is leptin a new thermolipo⁃ kine?[J].Int J Mol Sci,2021,22(12):6445

    • [20] SHI Z,PELLETIER N E,WONG J,et al.Leptin increas⁃ es sympathetic nerve activity via induction of its own re⁃ ceptor in the paraventricular nucleus[J].Elife,2020,9:e55357

    • [21] XIANG Y,XU Y,BHANDARI A,et al.Serum TSH levels are associated with postoperative recurrence and lymph node metastasis of papillary thyroid carcinoma[J].Am J Transl Res,2021,13(6):6108-6116

    • [22] LIU X Z,WANG J M,JI Y X,et al.Monocyte⁃to⁃high⁃den⁃ sity lipoprotein cholesterol ratio is associated with the presence and size of thyroid nodule irrespective of the gender[J].Lipids Health Dis,2020,19(1):36

    • [23] YANG B,MADDISON L A,ZABORSKA K E,et al.RIPK3 ⁃ mediated inflammation is a conserved β cell re⁃ sponse to ER stress[J].Sci Adv,2020,6(51):eabd7272

    • [24] 孙金枝,刘明明,侯宁宁,等.炎症因子与甲状腺结节的相关性研究[J].中国继续医学教育,2016,8(31):83-84

    • [25] KALRA S,AGGARWAL S,KHANDELWAL D.Thyroid dysfunction and type 2 diabetes mellitus:screening strate⁃ gies and implications for management[J].Diabetes Ther,2019,10(6):2035-2044

    • [26] BIONDI B,KAHALY G J,ROBERTSON R P.Thyroid dysfunction and diabetes mellitus:two closely associated disorders[J].Endocr Rev,2019,40(3):789-824

    • [27] 彭可.2 型糖尿病患者甲状腺结节发病的相关因素分析[J].中国医药导刊,2016,18(2):147-148,153

    • [28] WANG K,YANG Y,WU Y,et al.The association be⁃ tween insulin resistance and vascularization of thyroid nodules[J].J Clin Endocrinol Metab,2015,100(1):184-192

    • [29] WANG Z,GUO W,YI F,et al.The regulatory effect of sirt1 on extracellular microenvironment remodeling[J].Int J Biol Sci,2021,17(1):89-96

    • [30] 刘丽娟,甄东户,汤旭磊,等.中老年人促甲状腺素水平与新发非酒精性脂肪性肝病的相关性研究[J].南京医科大学学报(自然科学版),2021,41(3):369-375

    • [31] DOS SANTOS P B,GERTRUDES L N,CONCEIçãO F L,et al.effects of metformin on tsh levels and benign nodu⁃ lar goiter volume in patients without insulin resistance or iodine insufficiency[J].Front Endocrinol(Lausanne),2019,10:465

    • [32] THAKUR S,DALEY B,KLUBO⁃GWIEZDZINSKA J.The role of an anti⁃diabetic drug metformin in the treatment of endocrine tumors[J].J Mol Endocrinol,2019,63(2):R17-R35

    • [33] WANG H,MA Z,CHENG X,et al.Physiological and pathophysiological roles of ion transporter ⁃ mediated me⁃ tabolism in the thyroid gland and in thyroid cancer[J].Onco Targets Ther,2020,13:12427-12441

    • [34] CANNARELLA R,CONDORELLI R A,BARBAGALLO F,et al.TSH lowering effects of metformin:a possible mechanism of action[J].J Endocrinol Invest,2021,44(7):1547-1550

    • [35] CHEN G,XU S,RENKO K,et al.Metformin inhibits growth of thyroid carcinoma cells,suppresses self⁃renew⁃ al of derived cancer stem cells,and potentiates the effect of chemotherapeutic agents[J].J Clin Endocrinol Metab,2012,97(4):E510-E520

    • [36] HE L.Metformin and systemic metabolism[J].Trends Pharmacol Sci,2020,41(11):868-881

    • [37] AMIN S,LUX A,O'CALLAGHAN F.The journey of met⁃ formin from glycaemic control to mTOR inhibition and the suppression of tumour growth[J].Br J Clin Pharma⁃ col,2019,85(1):37⁃46

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